DEPARTMENT OF BALKANIC, SLAVIC AND ORIENTAL STUDIES MASTER IN POLITICS AND ECONOMICS IN CONTEMPORARY EASTERN AND SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE TITLE: Balkan Muslims and Modern Identities in Bosnia, Albania and Bulgaria SUPERVISOR: DR TSIMPIRIDOU FOTINI BY GKOUMA ZOI UNIVERSITY OF MACEDONIA, DECEMBER 2012 1 page CONTENTS 2 INTRODUCTION 3 ISLAM AS A RELIGION 7 The Sunni and the Shia-Sufi Islam in the Balkans 7 The Sunni and the Shia 7 Sufi Islam in the Balkans 9 BRIEF HISTORY OF ISLAM IN THE BALKANS 11 ISLAM IN BOSNIA – HERZEGOVINA 14 The BOSNIAK Muslims 14 ISLAM IN ALBANIA 23 The Albanian Muslims 23 The Bektashi Order 26 ISLAM IN BULGARIA 31 Pomaks of Bulgaria 32 CONCLUDING REMARKS 40 BIBLIOGRAPHY-REFERENCIES 45 2 INTRODUCTION In the public discourse on Islam, there is this introduction of terms marking the name of this universal religion with adjectives that refer to it, according to its geographical and cultural location, like ‘European Islam’, or ‘Turkish Islam’ etc. and that seems to be the result of the terminology transfer from Western religious studies, where there is a separation between ‘official’ or ‘normative’ religion on the one hand, and ‘folk religion’ offering interpretation and practice of a religion according to the specific forms of it, at a certain place or in a specific group on the other (Karcic 2006:1) ‘Folk religion’ is usually studied by anthropologists based on ethnographic data etc. In the case of Islam, anthropologists are interested in the process of socialization and symbolization in which Islam is performed in a certain local environment, so that understanding of this religion and the social-civil reality comes out of it (Karcic 2006:1) The identity of the Balkans and people living within, is dominated by its geographical position because as an area it is found at the crossroads of various cultures. It has been a juncture between the Latin and Greek bodies of the Roman Empire, the destination of a massive influx of pagan Slavs, an area where Orthodox and Catholic Christianity met, as well as the meeting point between Islam and Christianity. As Maria Todorova mentions:“The Balkans have a concrete historical existence…. While surveying the different historical legacies that have shaped the southeast European peninsula, two legacies can be singled out as crucial. One is the millennium of Byzantium with its profound political, institutional, legal, religious, and cultural impact. The other is the half millennium of Ottoman rule that….and established the longest period of political unity it had experienced” ( Todorova 2009:12) “As the Balkan region was never a harmonious melting pot, the wars and revolutions that took place there never solved anything; to the contrary, they merely generated new sets of conflicts and nationalities were kept apart by their distinctive cultural characteristics and ferocious territorialism. The latter was fed by the bad blood of 3 perpetual feuds, as well as by legends about the glorious past…but still, many of the genetically diverse groups came to co-exist under the powerful cross of the Orthodox Church. They all hoped to share a common ethnic identity and tried to act like Greeks, who in their turn were strongly influenced by Slavs and Turks, all of whom were woven into the fabric of Balkanization [a word that appeared after the Balkan wars of 1912-1913, to describe the ethnic violence, political confusion, and arbitrary re-division of lands into new countries with unhappy people of different origins, culture, and religion (Grumeza 2010 :preface)]” (Grumeza 2010 :intr.xv). Crucial as it seems, religion has been one of the most important factors for the history of the Balkans and for the construction of the identity of the Balkan peoples. According to Bradatan Costica, Islamisation in the Balkans which mainly took place during the period of Ottoman Empire, affected in an important way people's national and cultural identities and their ways of religious practices. The history of Islamisation overall indicates that ‘bi-confession’ or in other words Crypto- Christianity – the case when one changes their faith officially but in fact believes in their old faith- is well known in the Balkans and this is the reason why many times conversion had only been superficial. In the Balkan Peninsula, Muslims have several different ethnic and national origins: Turks, Albanians and Slavic-speaking people, like Boshnjaks, Torbeshes , Gorans (borderland of Serbia, Kosovo),and Pomaks. (Bradatan 2011:http://h-net.msu.edu) So, it would be more accurate not to speak of ‘Islam’ but rather use the plural form of multiple ‘Islams’ so that its heterogeneity, both from the aspect of practice and Muslims personal and collective identities is understood. So, we could easily notice that there are practices of ‘syncretism’ like staying at monasteries, lighting candles, taking consecrated water or asking for prayers and these are mostly present in mixed, Christian-Muslim neighborhoods. On the other hand, lately there has been observed (Bradatan 2011:http://h-net.msu.edu) really strong presence and impact of more 'radical' Islam or having its origin in the Middle East and which is imported by 'Arab missionaries, all kinds of media, or even locals as we are going to see later, who are educated in Q'uranic schools in the Middle East. This is the reason why, we 4 meet different patterns of Islam. Radical Islam is basically connected with 'islamophobia' that is spread all over the world and is differentiated with the one that is considered 'traditional' and is regarded as not 'dangerous' or even 'not true' Islam, or 'Crypto-Christianity' (Bradatan 2011:http://h-net.msu.edu). Last but not least, there is significant mobility of people in the region. Especially, increasing migration abroad causes numerous redefinitions of self-identities, life practices and worldviews of local people and ways of religious practice. In the present essay, an effort is being made to describe how Islam in the Balkans has led to shaping through its presence as a religion, civil and even national identities, the factors that actually contributed and played the substantial role for the formation and the construction of these identities and also the ways through which Muslims in the Balkans have been performing their religious practices ever since Islam made its appearance in the area, and all this through a social and anthropological approach. A brief historical overview is presented which concerns the appearance and conversion of Islam in the Balkan Peninsula, along with some words about the two most important school of thoughts of Islam the Sunni and the Shia Islam, and another aspect of Islam called the Suffi Islam, which is the one we mostly meet in the Balkans and it is rather a dimension of Islam that can be found in Sunni, Shia and other Islamic groups (http://www.bbc.co.uk). The historical presentation of Muslim communities and the way they perform their religious practices in some of the most important countries of the Balkans follows, through an effort to look at the distinguishing features of each one of them. Moreover, an effort is being made to present or even analyze the ways through which political and social powers managed to control and shape the present identities of Muslims in the Balkans, particularly in three countries of the Balkan Peninsula. 5 More specifically, we present the case of Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Muslims in Albania because they are the two most numerous Muslim groups in the Balkans, and finally the case of Muslim Pomaks in Bulgaria (as these latter are the ones who have attracted more attention, due to their specificity of origin, and have been accepting efforts of affiliation over their historical presence in the Balkans), i.e the case of Bosniaks Muslims, the case of Albanian Muslims and the case of Pomak Muslims, since these ones represent some of the most interesting and most discussed Muslim Communities in the Balkans for reasons that will be explained later. 6 ISLAM AS A RELIGION THE SUNNI AND THE SHIA SCHOOL OF THOUGHTS -SUFI ISLAM IN THE BALKANS THE SUNNI AND THE SHIA SCHOOL OF THOUGHTS According to Akbar Ahmed, Islam is composed of two major sects or better, schools of thoughts, the Sunni and the Shia. Today, roughly 85–90 percent of the Muslim world is Sunni while the rest is mainly Shia. On a theological level, these two sects show no differences— they both believe in the same God, Prophet, Quran, and the values inherent in Islam. Their differences are more of a political and sociological level and they go back to the death of the Prophet in 632 C.E. (Ahmed 2007: 44) Shia belief originates in the question of who should have been the first political successor to the Prophet of God and born the title of first caliph, or head of the Islamic community he had established. Believers of Shia sect, also support that the Prophet’s son-in-law, Ali, was the rightful successor and not only a respectful personality—a wise scholar and brave warrior—but also the first male to declare his belief in the message of Islam. He became the ruler of Islam, but only after Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman—all three highly revered figures in Sunni Islam—had held the position and he is the father of the prominent Shia figure Hussein, who would be martyred at Karbala, in modern-day Iraq—a seminal event in Shia history and marked by massive pilgrimages to Karbala today (Ahmed 2007:44) This first difference referring to the succession, developed into a sectarian schism under Umar’s rule, when the Persian Empire converted to Islam. The Persian brought to the Muslim world a lot of their customs and spirit of national pride. After having been defeated by the Arabs, they identified Ali in their new religion because this affiliation enabled them to retain a sense of superiority while seeing themselves as a persecuted minority within the world body of Muslims dominated by the Sunni. Over time, sociological differences seeped into religious observance, which affected rituals. The respect and status that Shia clerics enjoy in society is unmatched in the 7 Sunni sect, whose religious scholars have to compete with traditional leaders and with other leaders for a voice (Ahmed 2007:44-45). Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini who was the leader of the Islamic revolution in Iran against the shah, was the one who after all came to represent everything that was opposed to Western modernity, in the view of people in the West and he pointed out, that Sunni and Shia have little to do with substantial theological differences. Rather, the blame lies with ethnic, sociological, and psychological factors (Ahmed 2007: 45). 8 SUFI ISLAM IN THE BALKANS To go on now, with the Sufi dimension of Islam, according to Dr. Alan Godlas in his study “Sufism -- Sufis -- Sufi Orders Sufism's Many Paths” “ Sufism or tasawwuf, as it is called in Arabic, is generally understood by scholars and Sufis to be the inner, mystical, or psycho-spiritual dimension of Islam. Today, however, many Muslims and non-Muslims believe that Sufism is outside the sphere of Islam. Nevertheless, Seyyed Hossein Nasr, one of the foremost scholars of Islam, in his article ‘The Interior Life in Islam” contends that Sufism is simply the name for the inner or esoteric dimension of Islam” (http://islam.uga.edu/Sufism.html) According to Huseyin Abiva, “In the Balkans (as is the case in other Muslim lands) the past role of the Sufi tariqats (lineage fraternities) in the safeguarding and promulgation of Islam cannot go without notice.The Sufis of the Ottoman Balkans greatly enhance both to the development of an Islam of the intellectual arena as well as a ‘folk’ Islam of the village and countryside. Despite the fact that it has now been reduced to a mere shadow of a once immeasurable expression, the impact of Sufism can still be felt throughout Balkan Islam. The extent of this impression and its function in Muslim society can be seen through the number of tariqats that have operated in the region over the centuries (Abiva, 2009: http://bektashiorder.com) The largest and most prevalent of these tariqats during the Ottoman period were the Khalwatiyyah and the Bektashiyyah. …..once dominated the Ottoman Balkans throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. The Naqshbandiyyah, Qadiriyyah and Rifa’iyyah followed them in significance… As the Ottoman armies extended Muslim rule in the Balkans during the 15th and 16th centuries, dervishes of a range of tariqats trailed in their wake. These early Balkan Sufis frequently set up zawiyahs or hospices that served not only as symbols of Ottoman supremacy over a newly conquered area but as centres for the dissemination of Islam among the local population as well. Two of these distinguished zawiyahs were founded in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo immediately after the conquests of 1463. After a while, as the imperial administration became notably more entrenched and the Islamic 9 religious establishment further developed, tekkes were built to cater to the spiritual needs of the local population. … the end of Ottoman rule in Bosnia-Hercegovina in 1878 did not, however, result in the end of Sufism in the area….. a number of Sufi shaykhs managed to establish new centres of influence in Bosnia. Similarly a few Bektashi babas from Kosova were in contact with the small community of Albanian Bektashis that inhabited Sarajevo (Ibid) Following the conclusion of WWII and the setting up of communist rule over Yugoslavia, a period of general deterioration marked the all tariqat organization. This prohibition continued in place until the early 1970’s. In 1974 the Community of Islamic Dervish Orders of the SFRY (ZIDRA) was created as an umbrella organization to advance the study and practice of tasawwuf (Ibid) During the wars that racked Yugoslavia from 1991 to 1995, the tariqats and their followers played an active role in the defence of Bosnia’s Muslim community. In Albania, the largest tariqats prior to the end of the Second World War were the Bektashiyyah and the Khalwatiyyah. In the 1950’s harsh restrictions were placed on Albanian tariqats (and religion in general. By the time the ban on religion was rescinded in 1991, only the Bektashiyyah and Khalwatiyyah had individuals who were shaykhs prior to the 1967 ban still living. The latter made attempts to restore itself in the country under the leadership of Shaykh Muamer Pazari, but the modern Khalwatiyyah tariqat holds a paltry rank in contemporary Albanian Sufism. The Bektashiyyah was noticeably more fortunate. The headquarters of the tariqat was returned by the government (it was a home for the elderly in communist times), and the few remaining babas set about instructing once more” (http://bektashiorder.com/sufism-in-the-balkans-1). 10