Australian Heritage Database Places for Decision Class : Natural Item: 1 Identification List: National Heritage List Name of Place: Australian Alps National Parks and Reserves Other Names: Place ID: 105891 File No: 1/08/284/0028 Primary Nominator: 4107 Minister for the Environment and Heritage Nomination Date: 30/01/2007 Principal Group: Alpine environments Status Legal Status: 30/01/2007 - Nominated place Admin Status: 03/06/2008 - Assessment by AHC completed Assessment Assessor: Recommendation: Place meets one or more NHL criteria Assessor's Comments: Other Assessments: : Location Nearest Town: Thredbo Village Distance from town (km): Direction from town: Area (ha): 1608650 Address: The Alpine Wy, Thredbo Village, NSW, 2625 LGA: Yass Valley NSW Alpine Shire VIC Towong Shire VIC East Gippsland Shire VIC Wellington Shire VIC Australian Capital Territory ACT Snowy River Shire NSW Bombala Shire NSW Mansfield Shire VIC Tumbarumba NSW Tumut NSW Cooma-Monaro NSW Location/Boundaries: About 1,653,180ha, comprising the following national parks and reserves located in the Australian Alps: Brindabella National Park, about 12050ha, 35km south-south-west of Yass, NSW; Namadgi National Park, about 105900ha, 35km south-west of Canberra, ACT; Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve, about 5500ha, 25km south-west of Canberra, ACT; Bimberi Nature Reserve, about 7100ha, 55km east-south-east of Tumut, NSW; Scabby Range Nature Reserve, about 3400ha, 25km north of Adaminaby, NSW; Kosciuszko National Park, about 690000ha, 10km west of Jindabyne, NSW; Alpine National Park, about 646000ha, 5km south-east of Mount Beauty, VIC; Snowy River National Park, about 98700ha, 25km north-north-west of Orbost, VIC; Avon Wilderness Park, about 40000ha, 30km north-north-west of Maffra, VIC. Mount Buffalo National Park, about 31000ha, Mount Buffalo Road, Mount Buffalo, VIC; and Baw Baw National Park , about 13530ha, 5km north of Erica, VIC. Assessor's Summary of Significance: The Australian Alps National Parks and Reserves (AANP) are part of a unique Australian mountainous bioregion extending over New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory and Victoria. The AANP displays a mosaic of interactions between its natural and cultural environments. The natural landscapes of the AANP contain extremely restricted alpine and sub-alpine environments and flora and fauna species, with the alpine zone occupying a very small area (approximately 25,000 hectares). The AANP contains glacial lakes and includes the plateaus and peaks that are prominent and unparalleled in the Australian continent with an average elevation of only 330 metres above sea level. The AANP includes most of continental Australia's peaks over 1,700 metres and Australian Heritage Database all of those over 1,900 metres and experiences extensive snow coverage on a seasonal basis. The AANP provides a vital refuge for alpine and sub-alpine flora and fauna species, with a high level of richness and endemism across a wide range of taxa. During the late Quaternary Period and into the present, the high-altitude, cold-climate environment has provided refuge for species in an increasingly arid climate. The distribution of cold-climate species on the mainland retracted to the higher altitudes of the Alps as conditions began to warm up. The high peaks and plateaus of the AANP support a rich and unique assemblage of cold-climate specialist plant and animal species that have evolved unique physiological characteristics, enabling them to survive in an environment subject to extreme climate variation. The cold-climate, high-altitude history of the AANP is expressed in the assemblage of glacial and periglacial features, unique in low-latitude, low-altitude Australia. These include five alpine lakes, thirteen cirques and associated moraines, ice-grooved and polished pavements and erratic boulders, block streams, permafrost and solifluction deposits. The collection of features contributes uniquely to our understanding of the nature of landscape response to climate during the ice ages of the late Quaternary and into the present. The Mt Howitt fish fossil site demonstrates remarkable fossil species diversity and preserves fish fossils across a wide range of life stages from larvae to mature fish, over tens of millions of years. The site contributes an important narrative about the evolution of fish across a number of different marine and freshwater environments, and the development of features that enabled vertebrates to leave the water to exploit terrestrial environments for the first time. Containing the highest parts of the Great Divide, and the only region of mainland Australia with seasonal snow cover, the Australian Alps strongly influence the hydrology of eastern Australia. The Alps contribute significant quantities of snow melt to the river systems of eastern Australia, and the water retention properties of the bog and fen communities in the AANP play an integral role in regulating water flow to river systems. The AANP provides an outstanding example of the adaptability of a single plant genus, the genus Eucalyptus. The eucalypts dominate the AANP vegetation from the lowlands to the alpine heights, where the snow gum (E. pauciflora) defines the treeline. Much of the highest land in Australia occurs within the AANP which demonstrates very large topographical variations, which in turn is reflected in the high diversity of eucalypts along the altitudinal and climatic gradient. The AANP contains the Indigenous history of moth feasting which involved the use of an adult insect – the moth – as the basis for large-scale annual gatherings of different Aboriginal groups for ceremonies sets the gatherings in the AANP apart from other Aboriginal ceremonial gatherings and has captured the Australian imagination, making it exceptional in Australia. Transhumant grazing commenced in the 1830s and was the practice of using alpine high plains to graze stock during the summer months. It was a significant pastoral activity of the 19th and 20th centuries, continuously practised for over 150 years that made a considerable contribution to Australia's pastoral industry. Transhumant grazing created and sustained a distinctive way of life that is valued as an important part of Australia's pioneering history and culture. Historic features associated with transhumant grazing are evident in the former stockman's huts, the relict former grazing landscapes, stock yards and stock routes. Scientific research has been undertaken in the AANP since the 1830s. The value is demonstrated by the density and continuity of scientific endeavour. Research sites extending throughout the Alps relate to botanical surveys, soil conservation exclosures, karst research sites, fire ecology plots, arboreta, glacial research sites and space tracking. Snow-based recreation in the AANP commenced in Kiandra in 1861 with the establishment of the Kiandra Snowshoe Club and expanded from an ad hoc activity by enthusiasts to a multi-million dollar snow sport and tourism industry, today with substantial ski slopes and village resorts. The government hotels established in scenic locations - the Mount Buffalo Chalet, the Yarrangobilly Caves House and Precinct, the Chalet at Charlottes Pass, the Hotel Koscuisko (former) and Mount Franklin Chalet (former) were major features of the expanding activity in the early twentieth century. Water harvesting in the AANP has contributed to the social and economic development of Australia. Elements of the Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme and the Kiewa Valley Hydro-electric Scheme occur within the AANP and contribute to the electricity needs of south-eastern Australia, evident in the major pondages along with the numerous tunnels, aqueducts, power stations, huts, roads and former settlements, town and work camp sites. Both schemes were major post-war reconstruction projects with the Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme employing over 60,000 displaced persons from post war Europe. The North-East Kosciuszko pastoral landscape demonstrates the use of the mountain resources of summer grasses and herbfields in a remote environment with difficulty of access. As a relict landscape of past grazing leases it conveys the principal characteristics of transhumance and permanent pastoralism being the large areas of open grassy landscapes between timbered ridges and hills, stockman's huts, homestead complexes, stockyards and stock routes. The AANP is a powerful, spectacular and distinctive landscape and is highly valued by the Australian community for its aesthetic vistas and experiences. Much of the terrain is valued for its remoteness and naturalness, including views to and from the Alps. The mountain vistas, distinctive range-upon-range panoramas, snow covered crests, slopes and valleys, alpine streams and rivers, natural and artificial lakes, snow-clad eucalypts, the high plain grasslands and summer alpine wildflowers all evoke strong aesthetic responses. Recreational pursuits in these landscapes are enhanced by aesthetic appreciation of their wild and natural qualities. Snow-covered eucalypts, huts in mountain settings and mountain landscapes are distinctive Australian images captured by numerous artists and photographers. The mountain landscapes have inspired poets, writers, musicians and film makers. The AANP has a special association with the Australian community because of its unique landscapes, the experiences of remoteness and naturalness and as the only opportunity for broad-scale snow recreation in Australia. The AANP is widely recognised by Australians as the 'high country'. Mount Kosciuszko is an iconic feature for all Australians and visited by over 100,000 people each year. The mountain was named by the explorer Paul Edmund Strzelecki after the Polish freedom fighter, General Tadeusz Kosciuszko in appreciation of freedom and a free people, an association that is passionately valued and celebrated by Australia's Polish community. The pioneering history of the high country is valued as an important part of the construction of the Australian identity featuring in myths, legends and literature. The ballad of The Man from Snowy River epitomises horsemanship undertaken in rugged landscapes. The stories, legends, myths and lifestyles of the mountains have been romanticised in books, films, songs, and television series and many, such the Silver Brumby novels, are part of Australia's national identity. Through his ballad The Man from Snowy River, Andrew Barton 'Banjo' Paterson captured the imagination of the Australian people, stimulating a passion for the high country and the way of life associated with the mountains. The mountain huts of the AANP constructed for grazing, mining and recreation are valued by communities as a physical expression of the cultural history of the region. They have special associations with many community groups, such as the mountain cattlemen, skiers and bushwalkers but particularly with the Kosciuszko Australian Heritage Database Huts Association that has been maintaining mountain huts and associated vernacular building skills for over 30 years. Baron Ferdinand von Mueller is highly recognised nationally and internationally for his contribution to Australian botany, particularly his extensive and thorough botanical collections undertaken in several botanical collecting trips throughout the Alps on horseback. Eugen von Guerard is renowned for his painting North-east view from the northern top of Mount Kosciusko that is in Australia's national collection. The writer Elyne Mitchell and poet David Campbell lived near the mountains and their association with the alpine landscape is expressed in their literary works. Draft Values: Criterion Values Rating A Events, Processes The Australian Alps National Parks and Reserves (AANP) are part of a unique Australian mountainous region. Human AT interaction with the region has been distinctive in its response to the challenges and opportunities presented by this unique environment. Glacial and Periglacial Features The assemblage of glacial deposits and features in the AANP includes five alpine lakes, thirteen cirques and associated moraines, ice-grooved and polished pavements and erratic boulders. Periglacial features, both fossil and modern, include block streams, permafrost and solifluction deposits. These features are the material expression of the cold-climate, high- altitude history of the AANP, unique in the low-latitude, low-altitude Australian continent. The glacial and periglacial features contribute uniquely to our understanding of the nature of landscape response to climate during the ice ages of the late Quaternary and into the present and therefore has outstanding heritage value to the nation for its importance in the pattern of Australia’s natural history (Percival 1985; Galloway 1989; Yeates 2001a; ISC 2004; AALC 2006). Fossils The Mt Howitt fish fossil site demonstrates remarkable fossil species diversity and preserves fish fossils across a wide range of life stages from larvae to mature fish, over tens of millions of years. The site contributes an important narrative about the evolution of fish across a number of different marine and freshwater environments, and the development of features that enabled vertebrates to leave the water to exploit terrestrial environments for the first time. Fossils revealed at the site have outstanding heritage value to the nation for their place in vertebrate evolution during the so-called 'Age of Fish' (Vickers- Rich and Rich 1993; Cook ed. 2007). Karst The Yarrangobilly karst area contains an outstanding collection of surface karst features including gorges, arches, blind valleys, springs and pinnacle fields. It also contains several hundred caves including six show caves with many intricate cave decorations, open for public viewing (ISC 2004). Yarrangobilly has yielded valuable information on the long-term dynamics of landscape formation. The thick flowstone sequences in Jersey Cave span half a million years and provide the longest continuous fire history record from a single site in Australia (DEH 2006b). Yarrangobilly has outstanding value to the nation for its features and karst processes evident in the limestone karst landscape. Biological Heritage The Alps are one of eleven sites recognised in Australia by the IUCN as a major world centre of plant diversity. During the late Quaternary and into the present, the high-altitude, cold-climate environment has provided refuge for species in an increasingly arid climate. Containing most of the contiguous montane to alpine environments in Australia, the AANP supports a rich and unique assemblage of cold-climate specialist species that have evolved unique physiological characteristics, enabling them to survive in an environment subject to extreme climate variation. Outstandingly rich flora taxa in the AANP include the daisies (Asteraceae), willow-herbs (Onagraceae), starworts and cushion-plants (Caryophyllaceae), southern heaths (Epacris), bottlebrushes (Callistemon), orchids (Pterostylis, Prasophyllum and Dipodium) and pimeleas (Thymaelaeaceae). Cold-climate adapted and endemic fauna species include the mountain pygmy- possum (Burramys parvus), the alpine she-oak skink (Cyclodomorphus praealtus), Snowy Mountains rock skink (Egernia guthega), Baw Baw frog (Philoria frosti), southern corroboree frog (Pseudophryne corroboree), and the northern corroboree frog (P. pengilleyi). Species of a great many invertebrate taxa are endemic to the Alps. These include stoneflies, caddisflies, mayflies, grasshoppers, and earthworms. Many display cold-climate adaptations, such as the mountain grasshopper (Acripeza reticulata), mountain spotted grasshopper (Monistria concinna) and alpine thermocolour grasshopper (Kosciuscola tristis). The Bogong moth undertakes regular migration in Australia and an essential part of its lifecycle occurs within the AANP. The AANP is a vital refuge for alpine and sub-alpine flora and fauna species, with a high level of richness and endemism across a wide range of taxa, and therefore has outstanding value to the nation for encompassing a significant and unique component of Australia's biological heritage (Nankin 1983; Costin 1989; Strahan 1995; Good 1995; Boden and Given 1995; WWF and IUCN 1995; Cogger 1996; Crabb 2003 Good 2003; ISC 2004; DSE 2005; AALC 2005; DEC 2006; McDougall & Walsh 2007, ANHAT 2007). Moth Feasting The use of an adult insect – the Bogong moth – as the basis for past large-scale annual gatherings of different Aboriginal groups for ceremonies sets the gatherings in the AANP apart from other Aboriginal ceremonial gatherings and has captured the Australian imagination, making it exceptional in Australia (White 2006). Therefore the AANP has outstanding heritage value to the nation because of the importance of Aboriginal social gatherings based on moth feasting in the course, or pattern, of Australia's cultural history. Transhumant Grazing The AANP has outstanding heritage value for its association with historic transhumant grazing that commenced in the 1830s. The practice of using alpine high plains to graze stock during the summer months was a significant pastoral activity of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and was continuously practised for a period of over 150 years; making a considerable contribution to the early pastoral industry of south-east Australia. Transhumant grazing created and sustained a distinctive way of life that is valued as an important part of Australia's pioneering history and culture. Evidence of transhumant grazing includes huts, the former grazing landscapes, stock yards, and stock routes. Australian Heritage Database Scientific Research The AANP has outstanding heritage value for the scientific research that has taken place since the 1830s, demonstrated by the density and continuity of scientific endeavour. Research sites within the AANP include those relating to botanical surveys, soil conservation exclosures, karst research, fauna research, meteorology, fire ecology plots, arboreta and glacial research sites. Space tracking undertaken in the ACT with Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station having played a significant role in the Apollo 11 moon landing mission. Water Harvesting Water harvesting in the AANP has outstanding heritage value to the nation for its contribution to the social and economic development of Australia. Water harvested from headwaters in the AANP contributes to the water needs of Canberra and Melbourne. The Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme and the Kiewa Valley Hydro-electric Scheme also contributes to the electricity needs of south-eastern Australia. Both schemes were major post-war reconstruction projects, encouraging migration to Australia and employing over 60,000 displaced persons from post war Europe. Evidence of water harvesting in the AANP for power and irrigation includes the major pondages along with the numerous tunnels, aqueducts, power stations, huts, roads and former settlements, town and work camp sites. Recreation The AANP has outstanding heritage value for the longevity and diversity of its recreational use. Snow sports commenced in Kiandra in 1861 with the establishment of the Kiandra Snowshoe Club and expanded from an ad hoc activity by enthusiasts to a multi-million dollar snow sport and tourism industry characterised by the groomed ski slopes, ski lift infrastructure and substantial village resorts. The chalets supported by government were major features of the expanding activity and were established in scenic locations in the early twentieth century when mountain retreats were highly regarded for good health. These include the Mount Buffalo Chalet, the Yarrangobilly Caves House Precinct, the Chalet at Charlottes Pass, and the former Hotel Kosciusko and Mount Franklin Chalets. B Rarity Landscape and Topography AT The high altitudes of the plateaus and peaks in the AANP are prominent in a continent with an average elevation of only 330 metres above sea level. The AANP includes most of continental Australia's peaks over 1,700 metres and all of those over 1,900 metres. These high peaks and plateaus contain the vast majority of alpine and sub-alpine environments in Australia. The AANP experiences extensive snow coverage on a seasonal basis, and its glacial lakes are the only wetlands on the Australian mainland covered by ice sheets in winter. The high-altitude landscape of the AANP has outstanding heritage value to the nation for its topographic heights, uncommon alpine and sub-alpine ecosystems and glacial lakes. (AALC 2005; DEC 2006; Geoscience Australia 2007). Glacial and Periglacial Features Continental Australia and its southern territorial islands have experienced periods of historic glaciation, with current snow and ice coverage limited to the highest peaks and altitudes. On mainland Australia, the AANP preserves a concentration of glacial and periglacial features without comparison from the ice ages of the late Quaternary Period. The Kosciuszko Plateau is unique in mainland Australia as the only place irrefutably exhibiting landforms shaped by Late Pleistocene glaciers during a series of glacier advances known as the Late Kosciuszko Glaciation. The active and fossil periglacial landforms of the AANP include blockstreams and solifluction features (solifluction is the gradual movement of waterlogged soil down a slope, especially where percolation is prevented by a frozen substrate). They are the most striking and extensive in mainland Australia and demonstrate the widespread effects of cold climate in the Quaternary, mild climate in the Holocene and the absence of intensive Pleistocene ice modification of the elevated landscape of the Victorian and ACT Alps. Therefore the AANP has outstanding heritage value to the nation for containing uncommon glacial and periglacial features (Percival 1985; Yeates 2001; Barrows et al. 2001). Fossils The Mt Howitt fish fossil site is globally rare because it preserves a diverse array of fossil fish in uncommon detail at all stages of their lives. It is unique nationally in providing a snapshot of a complete freshwater vertebrate community from the past, and for yielding fossils from all stages of growth of a species, from tiny fish larvae to adult fish, and therefore has outstanding heritage value to the nation because of its preservation of an uncommon aspect of Australia's natural history (Long 2002; Cook ed. 2007). Alpine and Sub-alpine Ecosystems The AANP has outstanding heritage significance to the nation for possessing extremely uncommon aspects of Australia's natural history. Alpine and sub-alpine ecosystems are uncommon in the generally arid and warm climate of Australia. The distribution of cold-climate species on the mainland retreated to the higher altitudes of the Alps in the Late Pleistocene as conditions began to warm up. The AANP contains most of the alpine and sub-alpine ecosystems on mainland Australia, supporting flora and fauna species that have evolved to the harsh conditions of the high altitudes. Many of these species are endemic to the Alps and are found nowhere else in Australia. The bog and fen groundwater communities are supported by organic soils and contain exceptional water retention properties. These communities play an integral role in ecosystem function by regulating the slow release of water from saturated peatbeds to the surrounding alpine humus soils, streams and other alpine communities (Good 1995; AALC 2006b). Eucalypt Flora Community The AANP provides an outstanding example of the adaptability of a plant genus, the genus Eucalyptus, along a steep topographical transect. The eucalypts dominate the AANP vegetation from the lowlands to as high as the alpine region, where the snow gum (E. pauciflora) defines the treeline. Much of the highest land in Australia occurs within the AANP, which also demonstrates very large topographical variations, which in turn is reflected in the high diversity of eucalypt species replacing each other along the altitudinal and climatic gradient (Costin 1988; Kirkpatrick 1994; ISC 2004; ANHAT 2007). Australian Heritage Database D Principal characteristics of a North-East Kosciuszko Pastoral Landscape AT class of places The landscape is outstanding for demonstrating the use of mountain resources, namely the summer grasses and herbfields. As a relict landscape of past grazing leases it conveys the principal characteristics of transhumance and permanent pastoralism in a remote environment, these being large areas of open grassy landscapes between timbered ridges and hills, stockman's huts, homestead complexes, stockyards and stock routes. The grasslands with swathes of pioneer shrubs include the Kiandra landscape, Boggy Plain, Nungar Plain, Gulf Plain, Wild Horse Plain, Tantangara Plain, Dairymans Plain, Currango Plain, Long Plain, Cooleman Plain, Kellys Plain, Blanket Plain, Peppercorn and Pockets Saddle (KHA 2008). Homestead buildings include Cooinbil and Old Currango and the modest homestead complexes of Currango and Coolamine with additional features including exotic plantings, sheds, barns, and workers' accommodation. Former stock routes, now fire trails, include the Port Philip Fire and Murrays Gap Fire Trails. Located in the former grazing leases are stockman's huts, Bill Jones Hut, Circuits Hut, Gavels Hut, Hains Hut, Hainsworth Hut, Millers Hut, Oldfields Hut, Pedens Hut, Pockets Hut, Townsends Lodge, Gavels Hut, Long Plain Hut, Gooandra Hut, Schofields Hut, and Witzes Hut (KHA 2008), which in their use and re-use of available materials typify a lifestyle and vernacular bush building technology using hand tools. The array of characteristics relate to over a century of alpine grazing. E Aesthetic characteristics The AANP is a powerful, spectacular and distinctive landscape highly valued by the Australian community. The mountain AT vistas, including distinctive range-upon-range panoramas, snow covered crests, slopes and valleys, alpine streams and rivers, natural and artificial lakes, the snow-clad eucalypts and the high plain grasslands, summer alpine wildflowers, forests and natural sounds evoke strong aesthetic responses. Much of the terrain of the AANP is highly valued for its remoteness, and naturalness, including views to and from the region that capture snow clad ranges and mountain silhouettes against clear skies as well as expansive views of natural landscapes from the high points of the Alps. The upper Snowy River and Snowy Gorge, Mount Buffalo, the Kosciuszko Main Range, Lake Tali Karng, Dandongadale Falls the peaks and ridges between and including Mt Cobbler, Mt Howitt and the Bluff, and other high peaks, ridgelines, granite outcrops and escarpments are examples of dramatic awe-inspiring landscapes. Recreational pursuits in these landscapes are enhanced by aesthetic appreciation of their wild and natural quality. Snow-covered eucalypts, huts in mountain settings and mountain landscapes are distinctive Australian images captured by numerous artists and photographers. The mountain landscapes have inspired poets, painters, writers, musicians and film makers. G Social value The Australian Alps have a special association with the Australian community because of their unique landscapes, the AT possibility of experiencing remoteness and as the only opportunity for broad-scale snow recreation in Australia. The AANP is widely recognised by Australians as the 'high country' and many community groups have a special association with the AANP for social and cultural reasons. Mount Kosciuszko is an iconic feature for all Australians and visited by over 100,000 people each year. It was named by the explorer Paul Edmund Strzelecki after the Polish freedom fighter, General Tadeusz Kosciuszko, in appreciation of freedom and a free people, an association that is highly valued by Australia's Polish community. The pioneering history of the high country is valued as an important part of the construction of the Australian identity featuring in myths, legends and literature. The ballad of The Man from Snowy River epitomises horsemanship undertaken historically in the rugged landscape. The stories, legends and myths of the mountains and mountain lifestyles have been romanticised in books, films, songs, and television series and many such as the Elyne Mitchell’s Silver Brumby novels are part of Australia's national identity. The mountain huts of the AANP constructed for grazing, mining and recreation are valued by communities as a physical expression of the cultural history of the region. They have special associations with many groups, such as mountain cattlemen, skiers and bushwalkers but particularly with huts associations that have been maintaining mountain huts and associated vernacular building skills for over 30 years. H Significant people Baron Ferdinand von Mueller is highly recognised nationally and internationally for his contribution to Australian botany, AT particularly his extensive and thorough botanical collections of the Australian Alps undertaken in several botanical collecting trips on horseback, each of several weeks' or months' duration (Costin et al. 1979). Eugen von Guerard was a significant nineteenth century artist producing a prolific record of Australian landscapes. His 1863 painting the North-east view from the northern top of Mount Kosciusko is regarded as one of his finest artistically and is in Australia's national collection. Through his ballad The Man from Snowy River, Andrew Barton 'Banjo' Paterson captured the imagination of the Australian people, stimulating a passion for the High Country and the way of life associated with the mountains. His iconic ballad has had a lasting influence on Australians. The writer Elyne Mitchell and poet David Campbell lived near the mountains and their strong association with the place is expressed in much of their nationally important literary works. Historic Themes: Group: 01 Tracing the evolution of the Australian environment Themes: 01.04 Appreciating the natural wonders of Australia Sub-Themes: Group: 02 Peopling Australia Australian Heritage Database Themes: 02.02 Adapting to diverse environments Sub-Themes: Group: 03 Developing local, regional and national economies Themes: 03.03 Surveying the continent Sub-Themes: 03.03.02 Looking for overland stock routes Group: 03 Developing local, regional and national economies Themes: 03.05 Developing primary production Sub-Themes: 03.05.01 Grazing stock Group: 03 Developing local, regional and national economies Themes: 03.11 Altering the environment Sub-Themes: 03.11.01 Regulating waterways Group: 07 Governing Themes: 07.06 Administering Australia Sub-Themes: 07.06.10 Conserving fragile environments Group: 08 Developing Australia's cultural life Themes: 08.01 Organising recreation Sub-Themes: 08.01.04 Enjoying the natural environment Group: 08 Developing Australia's cultural life Themes: 08.11 Making Australian folklore Sub-Themes: 08.11.01 Celebrating folk heroes Nominator's Summary of Significance: Not provided. Description: The Australian Alps (the Alps) are identified as a bioregion under the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia. The Alps are known in Victoria as the Victorian Alps or the High Country, as the Snowy Mountains in New South Wales and as the Brindabella Range in the Australian Capital Territory. The term 'High Country' is also often understood to mean the entire region of the Alps. The Australian Alps National Parks and Reserves (AANP) are a tract of eleven protected areas stretching across the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and Victoria, containing the vast majority of alpine and sub-alpine environments in Australia. These reserves have been managed effectively as a single palaeobiogeographic unit for much of the last two decades. The boundary of the AANP comprises the following national parks and reserves: Brindabella National Park, Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve, Namadgi National Park, Bimberi Nature Reserve, Scabby Range Nature Reserve, Kosciuszko National Park and Alpine National Park, which form the central part of the AANP containing true alpine and sub-alpine environments, Snowy River National Park, the Avon Wilderness, and the outliers of Mount Buffalo and Baw Baw national parks, with Baw Baw representing the southerly extent of the sub-alpine environments on mainland Australia (Parks Victoria, 2005). The boundary of the AANP includes Cabramurra (the highest town in Australia) and the ski resorts of Guthega, Perisher Valley, Smiggin Holes, Blue Cow, Charlotte Pass and Thredbo. In Victoria the six main alpine resorts are outside the boundary of the AANP. The Alps are within the traditional lands of a number of Aboriginal groups including Ngarigo (Monero-Ngarigo; Ngarego; Ngarrugu); Wiradjuri; Ngunnawal; Wolgol [Walgalu]; Krautungalung; Brabiralung; Braiakaulung; Gunai/Kurnai; Minjambuta; Djilamatang; Djiringanj; Jaimathang - Yaitmathang; Duduora; Biduelli (Maap; Bidawal; Birdawal); Woiworung; Wurundjeri; Taungurung; Thau; and Walbanga (Goulding 2002; Tindale 1974 cited in Kabaila nd). Many Aboriginal people from the Alps now live throughout Victoria, the New South Wales south coast, Canberra, the Snowy Mountains region and beyond. These people continue to have an ongoing connection to the place (Goulding 2002) and some of their recollections of their lives in and around the mountains have been recorded, for example by Wesson (1994), Waters (2004) and Young (2005). Natural Features Geomorphology The Eastern Highlands is an elevated region of eastern Australia, extending for more than 3,000 kilometres roughly parallel to the coast from Cape York Peninsula to central Victoria. The southern part of the highlands is submerged in Bass Strait, before it reappears as the Tasmanian central highlands. The natural landscapes of the highlands vary in age, lithology and topography. In places, plateaus are dissected into rugged hills and their eastern edges, which are generally steeper than the western slopes, form high escarpments. These unite to form the Great Escarpment, which runs from northern Queensland to the Victorian border (Ollier 1988). The popular name for the highlands, the 'Great Dividing Range', derives from the highlands' function as a drainage divide, which has influenced the hydrology of the entire eastern portion of the mainland by diverting the rivers of the eastern states east to the coast or west inland. For much of its length the divide itself runs across rather low relief country where there is no distinctive 'range'. The highest elevations of the Great Dividing Range occur in the Alps. In eastern Victoria the old plateau has been eroded into separate high plains (such as Snowy Plains and Bogong High Plains), mostly lying south of the divide (Ollier 1988). Australia's highest mountain on the mainland, Mount Kosciuszko, is in the Snowy Mountains. Topographically, the region is an elevated undulating peneplain, separated in places by valleys and gorges into ridges, escarpments and large flat areas, known as high plains. In New South Wales much of the plateau country is still intact, whereas in Victoria, the ranges show progressively more relief to the south and to the west, where deep valleys and gorges have dissected the topography, leaving the plateaus of the Bogong High Plains and smaller isolated plateaus like Mount Buffalo and Baw Baw prominent in the landscape. The natural landscape of the Alps was in part shaped by episodes of glaciation. Glaciers are effective agents of erosion, transport and deposition, and glacial features appear distinct in the landscape from features formed by river flow. Glacial lakes often form in depressions carved out by glacial erosion (cirques), but also occur when dams of glacial deposits (moraine) form between a retreating glacier and an earlier end-moraine. In the still water of these lakes, clay and silt settle on the bottom in two thin layers, one light and one dark, called varve. This process is characteristic of glacial lakes, with two layers of sediment representing one year's deposition. These can be read like tree rings to indicate the age of a glacial lake (Plummer and McGeary 2003). Periglacial processes are also effective agents of erosion, transportation and deposition and occur where the landscape is exposed to extreme conditions of freeze and thaw. Geological features resulting from periglacial processes are usually quite distinct from features formed by glacial processes. The AANP contains a remarkable Australian Heritage Database concentration of landforms developed under periglacial processes of extreme freeze and thaw action. Such features include the movement of soil particles by the growth of needle ice, and in wet spots below long lasting snowpatches, solifluction and the mass movement downslope of soil and stones. Solifluction most commonly causes terraces or lobes, from the gradual movement of waterlogged soil or other surface material downslope, especially in places where the frozen subsoil prevents the percolation of surface water. Slope deposits and blockstreams are the largest, most widespread and easily recognisable periglacial features in the AANP (Galloway 1989; AALC 2005). On a smaller scale, solifluction terraces range from less than one metre to several metres in size. These include the non- sorted steps above the tree-line at Kosciuszko dating to around 2,500 years ago, which indicate a renewal of cooler conditions at that time (Costin 1989). There are no modern glaciers in Australia, although some snow drifts persist into late summer at higher elevations. Modern periglacial activity is restricted to elevations above the treeline (Barrows et al. 2001). The Australian continent remained largely untouched by late Pleistocene glaciations even in its highest landscapes. Consequently these landscapes preserve periglacial features, ancient landscapes, deep soil profiles and long biostratigraphic sequences. In Northern Europe and North America, in comparison, advancing and retreating glaciers scoured montane landscapes down to the bedrock, removing many features and deposits shaped by earlier glaciations and periglacial activity. The absence of intensive Pleistocene ice modification of the elevated landscape of the Victorian and Australian Capital Territory Alps is unusual. The lack of glacial activity and the mild climates of the Holocene epoch (the last 12,000 years) have preserved convex slopes and undulating plateaus above the treeline and well- developed deep alpine humus soils, as well as a range of active and fossil periglacial features (Kirkpatrick 1994). The AANP contains nine limestone karst areas, with Yarrangobilly Caves and Cooleman Plains being the best documented of these. The Yarrangobilly impounded karst area in northern Kosciuszko is characterised by surface karst features such as gorges, arches, springs and pinnacle fields as well as several hundred caves, including six show caves open for public viewing (ISC 2004). The Cooleman Plains karst area is located to the north of Tantangara Reservoir, in the northeast of Kosciuszko National Park. It contains an impressive array of karst features including caves, valleys, active and abandoned springs and stream sinks, and a series of small features known as 'A-tents' (ISC 2004; DEH 2006b). Flora and Fauna The flora and fauna of the Alps are a unique assembly of colonists of a young and ephemeral habitat evolved in a cold mountain environment, surrounded by a lower, warmer and more arid landscape (AALC 2005; DEH 2006a). Similar vegetation probably existed during previous interglacial periods and some basic elements of the flora might have persisted for at least the last few hundred thousand years. However, extreme climate fluctuations and changing fire regimes throughout the Quaternary probably resulted in major changes in the distribution and composition of the flora (Kershaw et al. 1986 in Busby 1990; Coyne 2000). Today, the Alps contain four distinct vegetation zones that are altitudinally and climatically determined. These zones are characterised by changes in height and species of the dominant eucalypt species and in the density, type and growth forms of under-storey and ground cover species (Cameron-Smith 1999; AALC 2005). These zones are the tableland, montane, sub-alpine and alpine zones. The alpine zone occupies a very small area of land above the tree-line (AALC 2006). Over time the extent of the alpine and sub-alpine zones has retreated, with increasing temperatures as a result of a changing climate. The floristic zones are attitudinally defined as follows (AALC 2005): Tableland: VIC 300-600m, NSW 300-800m, ACT 700-900m Montane: VIC 600-1,350m, NSW 800-1,500m, ACT 900-1,300m Sub-alpine: VIC 1,350-1,750m, NSW 1,500-1,850m, ACT 1,300-1,900m Alpine: VIC 1,750m+, NSW 1,850m+ Grassy woodlands and dry open forests occur on lower slopes or tablelands. Precipitation is higher in the montane zone and the forest is generally taller and denser than the sub-alpine zone. The trees are dominated by a mixture of eucalypts which are taller and grow closer together. At the highest elevation of the montane slopes just below the sub-alpine zones there is a band of tall open forest dominated by alpine ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis), the tallest eucalypts in the Alps standing at around 20-40 metres (Cameron-Smith 1999; AALC 2005). Above around 1,500 metres there is an abrupt change in vegetation from tall forest to a low-growing sub-alpine woodland dominated by the snow gum Eucalyptus pauciflora. The plants growing here have to endure low temperatures year round and precipitation falls mostly as snow and ice. The trees are stunted and often twisted away from the prevailing wind and as they approach the alpine and valley-bottom treelines, snow gums typically develop an increasingly shrub-like appearance and cluster into 'islands' generally associated with rocky outcrops. They can survive temperatures down to about -18 degrees Celsius, often in deep snow (Cameron-Smith 1999; Coyne 2000; AALC 2005). The snow gum (Eucalypus pauciflora) is an emblematic eucalypt associated with alpine scenery, particularly stunted and twisted growth forms. The species is common on high mountainous and plateau areas of the Alps and Tasmania, but also occurs on other tablelands and mountains, and some near-coastal areas in southern New South Wales, Tasmania, western Victoria and South Australia. It is generally found at an altitude above 1,500 metres to altitudes approaching 2,000 metres but often found down to around 1,000 metres or occasionally 600 metres, with rare occurrences to near sea level in Tasmania (CSIRO nd). The species has several described sub-species, the most cold-tolerant being subsp. niphophila (found at the highest altitudes suitable for tree growth in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and Victoria); subsp. debeuzevillei (restricted to some isolated peaks in northern Koszciusko National Park, New South Wales and adjacent similar areas of the Australian Capital Territory); subsp. hedraia (found only at the upper treeline around Falls Creek in Victoria, with subsp. niphophila occurring not far away) and subsp. acerina (the treeline form on the Baw Baw Plateau in Victoria). The typical subspecies, i.e. subsp. Pauciflora, also occurs where there is a treeline at slightly lower sub-alpine altitudes and is abundant in this sub-alpine habitat on all but the highest parts of New South Wales and Victoria (APC 2007, B Lepschi pers. comm. 25 October 2007). For the purposes of this report the 'snow gum' in the AANP will be referred to as Eucalyptus pauciflora. The alpine zone is subject to the coldest temperatures and the most persistent snow and the most obvious change in the vegetation is the transition at the treeline or upper altitude where trees can survive. The treeline generally coincides with mean mid-summer temperatures of about 10 degrees Celsius. At this level the limited solar energy only provides for day to day survival and renewal of leaves - there is not enough photosynthetic activity for the development of the large root systems, trunks and branches required by trees (AALC 2005, AALC 2006b). The deep organic soils of the alpine zone have been the subject of scientific interest, as they differ from other alpine areas around the world where soil formation is limited (ISC 2004). These soils have remarkable water retention properties and contribute to the slow release of snow melt over the year to the catchment. In the high plains cold air drainage is associated with an altitudinal inversion of ecosystems. Cold-tolerant communities which are often treeless occur both at the highest and at the lowest levels, often referred to as frost hollows. Forest and woodland communities occur between the altitudinal extremes (Costin 1989; Coyne 2000). Above the treeline is the true alpine zone the vegetation comprises a diverse mosaic of lower growing vegetation communities including heathlands, grasslands, herbfields and bogs, interspersed by bare protruding rockherbs reaching no more than a metre in height. The alpine zone is subject to the coldest temperatures and Australian Heritage Database the most persistent snow and is too harsh an environment for trees. The alpine zone supports a diversity of communities including herbfields, heaths, bogs, fens, feldmark and sod-tussock grasslands, and several of these communities have significant hydrological and biological conservation values. Alpine bogs produce significant volumes of high-quality water, which they release slowly into catchments in summer, when rainfall is scarce. Bogs and fens are groundwater communities dominated by hummock-forming mosses (Sphagnum spp.) and acidophilous shrubs. These communities develop in sites where partly decomposed organic matter accumulates and is colonised by water-loving species such as sedges (Carex spp.) (AALC 2006b). Deep organic soil profiles exist here and are partly responsible for the water retention properties of these high altitude ecosystems. There is a limited flowering season, and mass flowering takes place in the summer months (ISC 2004). The AANP demonstrates high species richness in a range of plant families and genera including the daisies (Asteraceae, especially Brachyscome, Helichrysum and Ozothamnus), willow-herbs (Onagraceae), starworts and cushion-plants (Caryophyllaceae), southern heaths (Epacris), bottlebrushes (Callistemon), eucalypts, particularly of the ash type (subgenus Monocalyptus), riceflowers (Pimelea), lilies (Liliales) and orchids (Pterostylis, Prasophyllum and Dipodium). One genus of tree, Eucalyptus, dominates the alpine landscape. The ubiquitous eucalypts cover upland and valley alike, occupying every available ecological niche except for the frost hollows and the highest mountain tops and ridgelines. Over 30 species of eucalypt replace each other along a number of ecological sequences across Kosciuszko National Park (DEC 2006; ANHAT 2007). Generally the range of vertebrate species in the region extends beyond the AANP and most are not dependent on alpine conditions. However several alpine vertebrate and invertebrate species have a limited distribution and many are threatened. The family of the smallest of the Australian possums, Burramyidae, includes the mountain pygmy-possum (Burramys parvus). Endemic to the Alps, the species is the only marsupial observed to display a physiological adaptation to cold, surviving the winter months in an energy-saving torpor (Mansergh et al. 1989; Mansergh and Broome 1994). Many other animals living in the AANP, particularly reptiles and amphibians, become inactive in colder temperatures and conserve energy by hibernating or becoming torpid. Species such as the mountain pygmy- possum, the native bush rat (Rattus fuscipes), the broad-toothed rat (Mastacomys fuscus) and Swainson's antechinus (Antechinus swainsonii) use the insulating properties of the snow to survive long cold winters by living entirely underneath it (AALC 2005). The ubiquitous short-beaked echidna has adapted to the extreme climate of the region, demonstrating both torpor and hibernation (Grigg et al. 1991). The alpine she-oak skink (Cyclodomorphus praealtus), alpine water skink (Eulamprus kosciuskoi) and high plains (or alpine bog) skink (Pseudemoia cryodroma) have a substantially alpine distribution. The alpine water skink occurs in sphagnum bogs and alpine she-oak skinks are found at high altitudes in sub-alpine woodland. The mountain dragon (Tympanocryptus diemensis) is the only agamid lizard that occurs above the winter snowline in Australia. It is found up to about 1,750 metres in open woodland, open heath and on rocky north- or west-facing slopes of the mainland mountains (Coyne 2000; Cogger 2000; Wilson and Swan 2003; Swan et al. 2004). The humid climate and generally pollution-free waters and bogs provide ideal habitats for frogs. Several species are largely restricted to the alpine and sub-alpine zones, including the Victorian Baw Baw frog (Philoria frosti), the brilliantly marked southern corroboree frog (Pseudophryne corroboree) and the northern corroboree frog (Pseudophryne pengilleyi) (Cameron-Smith 1999; Coyne 2000; Cogger 2000). The climbing or broad-finned galaxias (Galaxias brevipinnis) is a native fish that used to be found in waterways at all elevations throughout the Alps. It can climb damp rock faces into shallow warm pools of water to regulate its body temperature (Coyne 2000). It is now restricted to the alpine and sub-alpine waterways above waterfalls where introduced migrating trout cannot reach (AALC 2005). An emblematic alpine insect, the Bogong moth (Agrotis infusa) migrates to the high country in early summer from north-western New South Wales and Queensland, where it breeds and feeds. It clusters in large groups in rock crevices and caves and remains dormant over summer to escape the heat of the lowlands. This attribute is called aestivation or summer hibernation (AALC 2005). Caves provide a stable environment for specialised invertebrate fauna in the AANP, much of which is still to be studied (Coyne 2000). Yarrangobilly Caves and Cooleman Plains support distinctive invertebrate species restricted to the karst systems (Coyne 2000). The AANP contains two identified Ramsar sites: one comprises Blue Lake, Hedley Tarn and the majority of their catchments in Kosciuszko National Park, and the other being the Ginini Flats Wetland Complex in Namadgi (Coyne 2000). Wetlands occur where the water table is close to the surface: in valley bottoms, along stream courses or seepage areas on valley sides. The ecosystems of a few alpine streams have not been influenced by the introduction of trout or by water diversion (Costin 1989). Research on the flora and fauna of alpine aquatic systems indicates major differences between alpine systems and other aquatic systems in Australia (Cullen and Norris 1989). These streams and wetlands are floristically and physiographically complex and vary from wet Poa grassland, Carex-dominated fens, to peat bogs rich in sphagnum and hydrophytic shrubs and herbs. The presence of an additional sphagnum species, S. subsecundum, which is tolerant of submersion, distinguishes bog communities on the Baw Baw plateau and Lake Mountain, outside AANP (Coyne 2000). Catchments The Alps receives some of the highest precipitation in Australia and contains the headwaters of a number of major Australian rivers including the Snowy, the Murrumbidgee and Murray rivers. Large quantities of snow melt feed into the alpine rivers during spring and summer and are diverted into the Snowy Mountains scheme (Geoscience Australia 2007). The upper Murray catchment contributes more than 17 percent of the average annual runoff into the Murray-Darling basin, from only 1.4 per cent of the basin's area. The relatively low temperatures result in low evaporation rates and regular and plentiful precipitation. The high water- holding capacity of snow, of deep alpine soils and of vegetation - notably the bog communities, results in slow discharge rates of water and contributes to reliable stream-flow, by Australian standards, throughout the year. Around 2.5 metres of water falls as rain and snow in the region each year, and its slow release by sedgeland peats, fens and sphagnum moss beds maintains flow in streams and rivers, especially during drier summer months (Costin 1989; Good 1992a; Crabb 2003). As a result, the region holds large volumes of water resources and catchments that are highly valued for irrigation and domestic supply. Indigenous Features There is physical evidence of Aboriginal use across the region in the form of surface artefact scatters and open campsites, scarred trees, stone quarries, ceremonial grounds, stone arrangements, quarries, rock art and rock shelters with cultural deposit (Flood 1980; Grinbergs 1993a; Goulding et al. 2000; McConnell et al. 2002a, 2002b; Freslov et al. 2004). Three rock shelters containing evidence of human occupation on the fringes of the AANP during the Late Pleistocene have been excavated: Birrigai – 21,000 + 220 BP (Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve, Australian Capital Territory), Cloggs Cave – 17,720 + 840 BP (Buchan, Victoria) and New Guinea II - 21,000 + 900 BP (Snowy River National Park, Victoria). While neither New Guinea II nor Cloggs Cave occurred within the periglacial zone, it is likely that conditions were cold, dry and harsh. Birrigai is immediately adjacent to areas affected by periglacial conditions. Aboriginal rock art occurs at both New Guinea II (finger fluting) and Cloggs Cave. Aboriginal people have identified many places of value within the AANP, such as dreaming trails, spiritual places, ceremonial places, story places, named places, birthing places, food and medicine collection localities, raw material collection localities, and men's and women's places. A number of specific locations of Australian Heritage Database importance to individuals have also been named (Goulding et al. 2002; Waters 2004). Historic Features Many descriptions of historic features have been summarised from the report Assessment of the Cultural Heritage Values of the Australian Alps National Parks (Truscott et al. 2006). Alpine Pastoralism The high alpine pastures offered surrounding landholders good grazing during the summer months when feed was scarce on their home stations. Transhumant grazing, the practice of bringing cattle and sheep up to graze on the well watered high country pastures during the summer months, ameliorated the threat of drought in the low lands and allowed home pastures time to recover. This process of moving stock into and out of the high country pastures, resulted in a variety of significant features associated with alpine grazing including stock routes, stockyards, huts and homestead landscapes. Most of the grazing landscapes of the AANP are now relict but remain obvious by their open character. Maps delineating the former pastoral properties and grazing leases exist illustrating the extent of the activity across most of the 'plain' areas of the AANP. The higher areas remain as grasslands while some of the cold air drainage plains of northern Kosciuszko are now revegetating in shrubs such as hakea. A large network of stock routes crossed the Alps - some are extant while others have faded into obscurity. The Snowy River Route through the Willis customs station is now the Barry Way (New South Wales) and the Snowy River Road (Victoria). The Tharwa Kiandra Stock Routes and Miners Trails are now the Boboyan Road and Snowy Mountains Highway. Many of the former stock routes became fire trails with some modification to their original form. The Murray Gap Fire Trail in north Kosciuszko is an important historic stock route, the Fainter Cattle Track to the Bogong High Plains became the Fainter Fire Track. Although grazing has ceased in the AANP, the transiting of cattle has been allowed to continue under permit along specified routes through the Alpine National Park. Permanent pastoral properties were also established in the Alps. These were modest homesteads with many outbuildings for housing stock during the winter months. The huts and homestead complexes demonstrate the vernacular building techniques using hand tools such as an adze and broad axe. Stockyards and in some cases exotic trees also remain in the landscape. Most of the huts in the AANP are stockmen's huts that were built for alpine pastoral activities are located within or on the edges of open areas, generally near the road or stock route. Shelter huts constructed by stockmen for personal shelter and storage were built to survive the impact of the harsh winter weather. On average they measured three by six metres, with a stone fireplace or detached chimney and with a sleeping platform or bunks. Their fabric reveals the use and re-use of available materials, due to the difficulty of bringing building materials into the high country. Although the number of huts has been depleted, mostly by bushfires, there are around 150 huts remaining in the AANP from the original suite of huts of almost double that number. The Kosciuszko Huts Association (KHA, 2004) and the Victorian High Country Huts Association (VHCHA 2008) list and map the location of the huts in the Alps and a summary of some of the key huts and homesteads follows. Cascades Hut is located about 50 metres off the fire trail from Dead Horse Gap to Tin Mines. It was built in 1935 as part of a summer pastoral grazing run and was restored in the 1970s. The hut has a strong association with the Silver Brumby novels. Coolamine Homestead was established in the 1880s and is an important example of an alpine pastoral grazing run. The complex today consists of Southwell House and main homesteads, the cheese house, an iron building in front of Southwell House, yards and outhouses. The Currango Pastoral Landscape shows evidence of former grazing leases of Currango plain and contains 25 buildings constructed between 1851 and 1926, including Old Currango and Currango Homesteads and their outbuildings. The landscape was grazed from the 1830s. Old Currango Homestead, built in 1873 and subsequently modified, is the oldest homestead in Kosciuszko National Park. The Currango homestead complex was built in 1895 and is the largest and most intact homestead complex of the 11 snow belt stations and is the only one that has been almost continuously and seasonally occupied since the 1850s. The homestead is still functioning for tourism. The Gudgenby Station was used for pastoralism from 1844. It contains the current Gudgenby Homestead, built in 1967 on the site of the original homestead, the Hudson Ready Cut Cottage built in 1927, and ancillary structures. The pastoral landscape is contained within the Gudgenby Valley at the junction of the Gudgenby River and Hospital Creek. Oldfields Hut was built in 1925 and is located in the east of Kosciuszko National Park almost at the border with Namadgi National Park, on the track that leads up to Murrays Gap and Mount Bimberi. It is a fine example of a hand built slab timber hut with a corrugated iron roof. The place retains remnants of a vegetable garden and fruit trees. The Orroral Homestead was first used for summer grazing in 1839. The homestead precinct contains remnant fences and stockyards, huts dray tracks, animal pens, sheds, a shearing shed, the 1860s and 1950s buildings, a well, and an orchard and plough-fields. Wonnangatta Station was established in 1866 and is situated in the Victorian Alps in a remote pastured valley, with the Wonnangatta River running along its length. The Station site consists of the burnt ruins of the main Homestead, a blacksmith shop site and cattlemen's hut, cattle yards and pens, orchard, plantings and cemetery. It is located near the junction of Conglomerate Creek and the Wonnangatta River, 29 kilometres north-west of Crooked River township (DEW 2007a). The main homestead was burnt accidentally in 1957 but the site still contains chimney remains and is surrounded by exotic European tree plantings (Truscott et al. 2006). Wallaces Hut is also known as Seldom Seen Hut, and is located at Wallace Gap on the Bogong High Plains. This hut is the oldest complete structure in the Alpine National Park built in 1889 by the Wallace brothers, Arthur, William and Stewart, from snow gum slabs and woollybutt shingles. The National Trust classified the hut in 1967, and the Rover Scouts of Victoria have continued to maintain it for some decades (Truscott et al. 2006). Mining The gold rushes in the Alps brought miners from all over Australia and the world, including many from Europe, Britain, America and China. From 1851 to the 1920s almost 70 fields were mined in the Alps and adjacent areas in Victoria, including some tin and copper mines, although many mining fields within the region had relatively low yields. There are 68 mining fields found in the AANP or the adjacent Historic Areas (LRGM 2002). The Kiandra mining field in New South Wales and the Red Robin Australian Heritage Database Mine landscape in Victoria are regarded as the sites most representative of the low technology style of mining that occurred in the Alps. The Kiandra mining field shows the particular characteristics of mining in the Alps in the nineteenth century, notably in its extensive alluvial mining remains and use of water races to capitalise on the high water volume but low water velocity. The Kiandra township site and associated diggings include Township Hill, New Chum Hill, Surface Hill, Kiandra cemetery, Pollocks Gully, Commissioners Creek, and sections of Bullock Head and Eucumbene River. The only early extant buildings are the courthouse and Matthew's cottage, both of which have been significantly altered. The diggings are in generally good condition and with all machinery and equipment removed (LRGM 2002). The Red Robin mine site contains a blend of early and recent elements including huts, camp settlement and housing, mine dam, machinery, mullock heap and tailings dump (Victorian Heritage Register 2006). Of particular interest are the remains of the vertical boiler next to the battery house, used to heat water to facilitate plate amalgamation of gold in sub-zero conditions. Associated with the sites is an important collection of in-situ mining equipment. Huts such as the suite of Tin Mine huts and the original Grey Mare Hut were constructed for mining. Many of the huts have since become shelter destinations for bushwalkers and skiers. Water Harvesting As well as receiving some of the highest precipitation in Australia, the shape of the landforms makes the region particularly amenable for providing ample water resources that are used for power generation. There are two hydro-electric schemes partially within the AANP that tap into this water resource; the Kiewa Hydro- electric Scheme (KHES) and the Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme (SMHES). The KHES was constructed over more than 20 years from the late 1930s. The scheme diverts and harnesses branches of the Kiewa River, with its source in the Bogong High Plains and near Mount Hotham (AGL 2008). The topography of the Victorian Alps with its low valleys extending deep into the high country means that several parts of the KHES are not within the AANP. However, the relevant catchments and many individual features lie within the AANP. Facilities associated with the scheme include water storages, aqueducts, pipelines, roads, power stations and gauging stations. The SMHES was constructed between 1949 and 1974 and is located partly in the north-western Kosciuszko National Park (McHugh 1999; Pearson and Marshall 2000). The source of the Snowy River is on the Main Range. The scheme harnesses branches of the Snowy River and diverts water flow to the west, producing electric power and providing water to major irrigation systems along the Murrumbidgee and Murray Rivers. Recreation and Tourism The network of tracks and roads throughout the Alps, many of which were originally established to allow access for early infrastructure for industries such as logging, mining and pastoralism, have more recently been used for the development of the tourism industry and for park management. These routes range in condition from walking trails and fire management trails through to serviced roads and highways. This evolving network of routes has made the Alps accessible to recreational users. Trails within the AANP are used by horse riders, bushwalkers, hikers and mountain bike riders. The Australian Alps Walking Track spans some 650 kilometres from Walhalla in Victoria to Tharwa in the Australian Capital Territory. The Bicentennial National Trail, launched in 1988, extends from Healesville through the Alps to Cooktown in Queensland. Other walking trails of note include McMillans Walking Track and the Hume and Hovell Walking Track. Service roads and highways include the Alpine Way; the Kosciuszko Road and the Great Alpine Road. These are examples of works undertaken by state governments to encourage and underpin tourism in the region throughout the twentieth century. As a result of the Alps becoming more accessible, tourism began to prosper from the early 1900s. Many features of early tourism enterprise are still extant in the landscape, others have been lost through bushfire and development, and others have been upgraded. These historic recreation features include resorts and associated tourism infrastructure, hotels, lodges and chalets. Many of the huts originally constructed for mining and pastoralism have become shelter destinations for bushwalkers and skiers. The main resorts within the AANP include Thredbo, Perisher, Guthega, Smiggin Holes, Blue Cow and Charlotte Pass in New South Wales and Mt Buffalo in Victoria. The Victorian resort villages of Mt Hotham, Falls Creek and Dinner Plain are not within the AANP boundary. Mt Buffalo resort is on a granite massif plateau, and touring groups began visiting the Mount Buffalo plateau from 1856. By the 1890s there was a hospice and a hotel on the plateau offering accommodation to visitors. Thredbo, on the other hand, is a compact village in a narrow valley, and the central Kosciuszko resorts have a particular landscape character in the way the buildings integrate with the environment, in particular: their clustering, spacing and scale; as well as their conformity to the land slopes, creeks and access bridges (Freeman 1998). The resort style architecture shows the adaption of a number of styles to Australian conditions, and ranges from accommodation built in simple vernacular style, to buildings that adapt the style of chalets built in European alpine regions. The buildings in the resorts are a mix of private and commercial lodges, hotels, apartment blocks and staff accommodation lodges, and many show innovative design concepts. The Yarrangobilly Caves House was built in 1901. The majority of buildings from this period are still present and in near original condition (DEW 2007d). The original Hotel Kosciusko was built in 1909 and was destroyed by fire in 1952. The Hotel Kosciusko was a large European style building that had a grand slam ski run, the first commercial ski slope in the Snowy Mountains area. The existing building is adapted from the staff quarters of the original complex and is known as Sponar's Chalet. The Mount Buffalo Chalet was designed as a temporary building and was completed in 1910. The Chalet is reminiscent in style to northern European Chalet architecture (Heritage Register Victoria 2007). The Chalet at Charlotte Pass was originally opened in 1930 to encourage tourists to visit the Snowy Mountains. It was rebuilt in 1939 has undergone some modifications and upgrades to meet visitor demand and expectations over the years and still continues to operate as a tourism destination. The Franklin Chalet south west of Canberra was built in 1937-38 and was destroyed in the 2003 bushfires. The Chalet site, associated huts, a stone gateway, ski runs, and the remains of a vehicle powered tow are extant and associated with Australian skiing in the period 1936-1963 (KHA, 2007). Illawong Lodge at Guthega was built in 1957 as a simple one storey structure which was added to the former Pound's Hut and still functions as a ski lodge (DEW 2007c). Cope Hut on the Bogong High Plains was constructed for the safety of skiers in 1929 (KHA 2001). The Ski tube is Australia's highest rack railway system and is an 8.5 km journey through the longest railway tunnel (a total of 6.3 km) in the country. Bullocks Flat terminal is 1,120 metres above sea level and the terminal at Mount Blue Cow is at 1875 metres - a total climb of 755 metres.