ELITE • 30 ATTILA AND THE NOMAD HORDES DAVID NICOLLE PhD • ILLUSTRATED BY ANGUS McBRIDE CONTENTS INTRODUCTION CHRONOLOGY THE NOMADS AND THEIR NEIGHBOURS WEAPONS, HORSES, TRANSPORT AND FORTIFICATIONS • Bows • Swords • The Nomad and His Horse • Transport • Fortifications THE NOMAD PEOPLES • The Fountainhead • The Huns and their Successors • The Turks THE SECOND WAVE THE SILK ROAD THE THIRD WAVE PEOPLES OF THE FOREST THE FOURTH WAVE FURTHER READING ATTILA AND THE NOMAD HORDES INTRODUCTION Of all the conquerors who swept out of Central Asia, two names stand out in European memory— Attila the Hun and Genghis Khan the Mongol. Both are remembered for massacres and devastation; yet whereas Genghis is also famous for the laws he imposed on half of Asia and for the trade which flourished under Mongol rule, Attila's notoriety seems unrelieved by positive achievements. But what was Attila's short-lived empire really like? What happened to the Huns afterwards, and what rôle did the nomads of Central Asia play in the centuries between Attila and Genghis Khan? The serpent beneath a Roman Emperor's foot on this gold coin may be the only contemporary The serpent beneath a Roman Emperor's foot on this gold coin may be the only contemporary 'portrait' of Attila. Minted under the co-Emperors Valentinian III and Marcian, it is believed to commemorate Roman victories over the Huns. (British Mus., C.191BT.9, London) During the murky years before Attila's reign the Huns may have jostled the Goths, Vandals and other Germanics into the so-called Great Migrations, which in turn eventually destroyed half the Roman Empire. Around AD 445 Attila won the leadership of a confederacy of tribes and from then on the Huns grew from a barbarian nuisance into a deadly peril for the Romans. In 451, however, Attila's invasion of northern France ended in defeat, and two years later he died. His empire was divided between quarrelling sons and collapsed almost without trace. Yet from this unpromising record arose legends which made Attila the Hun into one of the fiercest ogres of European history. Attila did use theatrical rages to inspire fear, while his campaigns show ruthlessness as well as strategic skill. Like Genghis Khan, Attila clung to the simple life of his ancestors despite vast wealth. Like Genghis he frequently preferred political manoeuvre to open battle and, despite the reports of Roman and Greek chroniclers, was no mere savage. Nor was he a 'divine ruler' to his own tribesmen, merely a great warrior-leader who, on his death, was buried with simple Turco-Mongol ceremony. The Huns also had their own culture which, though alien to the Classical world, was neither barbarous nor any more cruel than that of the Roman Empire. Attila's greatest crime was to be different, in physical appearance, cultural background and attitude towards urban civilisation. Even these differences seem to have been exaggerated, for by the time Attila built his empire the Huns were no longer simply steppe nomads. It was Attila's foes who raised him to the status of an alien monster. Roman coins portrayed the Huns as a demonic human-headed serpent—the ancient symbol of those irrational giants who once fought Zeus. Other monuments to the defeat of the feared Hun might be a series of crude Roman carvings in eastern France. Yet the greatest memorial must be Attila's rôle as the wicked Etzel in the medieval German epic poem The Niebelungenlied which inspired Wagner's overblown operatic cycle of The Ring. CHRONOLOGY (See also MAA 105 The Mongols, MAA 125 The Armies of Islam 7th-11th Centuries, MAA 171 Saladin and the Saracens, MAA 175 Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians, MAA 195 Hungary and the fall of Eastern Europe 1000-1568 and Elite 19 The Crusades). (Central Asian peoples shown in italics) 220 Fall of Chinese Han dynasty; China under fragmented local dynasties. 304-15 Hsiung-nu invade China. 330 Capital of Roman Empire moved to Constantinople (Istanbul). c.350 Huns invade Iran and India. c.370 'Black' Huns overrun Alans north of Black Sea. 402-10 Unification of Juan-Juan along north Chinese frontier. 443-47 'Black' Huns invade Thrace and Greece. 445 Attila becomes sole ruler of 'Black' Huns. 447 'Black' Huns cross Danube, invade Eastern Roman Empire. 451 Defeat of Attila by Western Romans and allies at battle of Catalaunian Fields. 453 Death of Attila, collapse of 'Black' Hun Empire in Europe. 476 End of Western Roman Empire. 480 Hephthalite 'White Huns' destroy Gupta Empire of India. 484 Hephthalite 'White Huns' kill Sassanian Emperor of Iran. 552 Establishment of Gök 'Blue' Turkish state in Central Asia. 558-70 Avars enter Europe, establish state in Hungary. 571 Gök 'Blue' Turks and Sassanian Iranians destroy Hephthalite 'White' Hun state and divide Transoxania - eastern Iran between them. c.585 Gök 'Blue' Turkish state divided into Eastern Turkish and Western Turkish Khanates. 601 Avars defeated by Byzantines (Eastern Romans). 618 Sui dynasty overthrown by T'ang dynasty in China. 626 Avar-Sassanian alliance besieges Constantinople. 636-51 Muslim Arabs conquer Sassanian Iran. 658 Chinese power reaches greatest extent in Central Asia. 665 Tibetans expand into Central Asia. 679 Bulgars cross Danube, found state of Bulgaria. 739 Consolidation of Arab Muslim power in Transoxania. 744 Destruction of Eastern Turkish Khanate. 745 Establishment of Uighur Empire in Central Asia. 751 Muslim Arabs defeat T'ang Chinese at battle of Talas. 763 Collapse of T'ang Chinese authority in Central Asia. 803 Collapse of Avar state in Central Europe. 811 Bulgars defeat Byzantines at Adrianople (Edirne). 840 Uighur Empire overthrown by Kirghiz. 840-42 Collapse of central authority in Tibet, disintegration of Tibetan Empire in Central Asia. 865 Bulgarians and Serbians converted to Christianity. 899 Magyars cross Carpathians into Hungary. 907-960 China fragmented under 'Five Dynasties'. 915 First Pecheneg raids into Russia. 916 Foundation of Khitai state in Mongolia. 922 Unification of Volga Bulgars. 947 Khitai overrun northern China. 955 Magyars defeated by German Empire at battle of Lech. 965-67 Prince Svyatoslav of Kiev breaks power of Khazar Empire. 979 China largely reunited under Sung dynasty. 999 Muslim Karakhanids seize Transoxania. 1018 Byzantium overthrows first Bulgarian kingdom in Balkans. 1036 Major defeat of Pechenegs by Russian Prince of Kiev. 1054 Kievan Russia fragments in rival principalities, first major Kipchaq raids into Russia. 1091 Byzantines and Kipchaq allies defeat Pechenegs. 1093 Kipchaqs sack Kiev. 1125 Unification of Kipchaqs in southern Russia. 1125-26 Jurchen (Chin) Conquer Khitai northern China, Khitai migrate westward and establish Karakhilai state (c. 1140). c.1165 Muslim Karakhanids overthrown by Buddhist Karakhilai. 1167 Birth of Genghis Khan. 1206 Start of Mongol conquests under Genghis Khan. Carved funeral couch from northern China (northern Ch'i dynasty AD 550—557). One rider wears a Central Asian coat and has a long straight sword while a Turkish tassel hangs from his bridle. He does not yet use stirrups. Another scene shows a large dagger in a flared sheath. Identical weapons appeared wherever Central Asian Turkic peoples ruled. (Mus. of Fine Arts, inv. 12.588-9, Boston)