Atlas of AI This page intentionally left blank Atlas of AI Power, Politics, and the Planetary Costs of Artificial Intelligence KATE CRAWFORD New Haven and London Copyright © 2021 by Kate Crawford. All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including illustrations, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without written permission from the publishers. Yale University Press books may be purchased in quantity for educational, business, or promotional use. For information, please e- mail [email protected] (U.S. office) or [email protected] (U.K. office). Cover design and chapter opening illustrations by Vladan Joler. Set in Minion by Tseng Information Systems, Inc. Printed in the United States of America. Library of Congress Control Number: 2020947842 ISBN 978- 0- 300- 20957- 0 (hardcover : alk. paper) A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48- 1992 (Permanence of Paper). 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 For Elliott and Margaret This page intentionally left blank Contents Introduction 1 ONe. Earth 23 twO. Labor 53 three. Data 89 fOur. Classification 123 fIve. Affect 151 SIx. State 181 CONCluSION. Power 211 COdA. Space 229 Acknowledgments 239 Notes 245 Bibliography 269 Index 315 Introduction The Smartest Horse in the World At the end of the nineteenth century, Europe was captivated by a horse called Hans. “Clever Hans” was nothing less than a marvel: he could solve math problems, tell time, identify days on a calendar, dif- ferentiate musical tones, and spell out words and sentences. People flocked to watch the German stallion tap out answers to complex problems with his hoof and consistently arrive at the right answer. “What is two plus three?” Hans would dili- gently tap his hoof on the ground five times. “What day of the week is it?” The horse would then tap his hoof to indicate each letter on a purpose-b uilt letter board and spell out the correct answer. Hans even mastered more complex questions, such as, “I have a number in mind. I subtract nine and have three as a remainder. What is the number?” By 1904, Clever Hans was an international celebrity, with the New York Times championing him as “Berlin’s Wonderful Horse; He Can Do Almost Every- thing but Talk.”1 Hans’s trainer, a retired math teacher named Wilhelm von Osten, had long been fascinated by animal intelligence.