Atheism and Analogy: Aquinas Against the Atheists Dan Linford Thesis submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts In Philosophy Joseph C. Pitt Benjamin Jantzen Matthew Goodrum April 25, 2014 Blacksburg, Virginia Keywords: atheism, theology, analogy, God, Berkeley, Hume, Anthony Collins, d'Holbach Atheism and Analogy: Aquinas Against the Atheists Dan Linford ABSTRACT In the 13th century, Thomas Aquinas developed two models for how humans may speak of God – either by the analogy of proportion or by the analogy of proportionality. Aquinas's doctrines initiated a theological debate concerning analogy that spanned several centuries. In the 18th century, there appeared two closely related arguments for atheism which both utilized analogy for their own purposes. In this thesis, I show that one argument, articulated by the French materialist Paul-Henri Thiry Baron d'Holbach, is successful in showing that God-talk, as conceived of using the analogy of proportion, is unintelligible non-sense. In addition, I show that another argument, articulated by Anthony Collins (Vindication of Divine Attributes), George Berkeley (chapter IV of Alciphron), and David Hume (chapter XII of Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion) can be restructured into an argument for the position that the analogy of proportionality makes the distinction between atheism and theism merely verbal. Since both of these are undesirable consequences for the theist, I conclude that Aquinas's doctrine of analogy does not withstand the assault of 18th century atheists. Acknowledgements I would like to thank Aaron Yarmel,1 Walter Ott,2 Ted Parent,3 Roger Ariew,4 and Dan Fincke5 for discussions that helped to complete this thesis. I would also like to thank my thesis committee – Joseph C Pitt, Benjamin Jantzen, and Matthew Goodrum – for their helpful comments, feedback, and support without which this thesis would not have been possible. I'd also like to thank the organizers of the 2013 Eastern Regional Meeting of the Society of Christian Philosophers (Theistic Metaphysics and Naturalism) where an early version of this project was presented. 1 Formerly a graduate student in philosophy at the London School of Economics. 2 Virginia Tech. 3 Virginia Tech. 4 University of South Florida. 5 Former adjunct professor at City College of New York. iii Table of Contents Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter I: The Problem of Religious Language and the Doctrine of Analogy ................ 3 Chapter II: A Brief History of Two Atheological Arguments ......................................... 15 Chapter III: D'Holbach and the Analogy of Proportion …............................................... 23 Chapter IV: Collins, Berkeley, Hume and Proportionality ….......................................... 33 Chapter V: Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 51 iv Introduction According to medieval theologian and philosopher Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)6 human language is inadequate for talking directly about God because human languages were developed from concepts originating in the creaturely realm,. Instead, one can meaningfully refer to God only by analogy: the Doctrine of Analogy.7 In this thesis, I show that two “atheological”8 arguments developed in the 18th century pose significant challenges to Aquinas's Doctrine.9 The first of the two arguments demonstrates that one kind of analogy either renders God-talk into mere non-sense or is question begging. The second argument shows that an alternative version of Aquinas's Doctrine renders God so mysterious that there is no longer a substantive distinction 6 "St. Thomas Aquinas." Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998. 7 Ralph McInerny, Aquinas and Analogy, (Catholic University of America Press, 1999); Roger White, Talking About God, (Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2010), pg 1; Gavin Hyman, "Atheism in Modern History" in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. Michael Martin (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), pgs 37-43. 8 In the philosophy of religion literature, 'atheology' is defined as “the intellectual effort to explain why a world-view should not include any god” (John Shook, The God Debates: A 21st Century Guide for Atheists and Believers, (West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell, 2010), pg 13). 'Atheological arguments' are defined as “arguments for the nonexistence of God” (Theodore Drange, "Incompatible-Properties Arguments: A Survey," Philo, 1, no. 2 (1998), pg 49). 'Atheology' was also a term in actor's categories, having been introduced by Ralph Cudworth. See David Berman, A History of Atheism in Britain: From Hobbes to Russell, (London: Routledge, 1988), pg 89. In his Mysteries of Atheism Revealed, Cudworth states that Epicurean materialism was "really nothing else but a philosophical form of Atheology". He goes on to provide a description: "a gigantical and Titanical attempt to dethrone the Deity, not only by solving all of the phenomena of the world without a God, but also, by laying down such principles, from whence it must needs follow, that there could be neither an incoporeal nor corporeal Deity" (Ralph Cudworth, “Mysteries of Atheism Revealed” in The Works of Ralph Cudworth Containing the True Intellectual System of the Universe, Sermons, &c, (Oxford, 1829), pg 182. This book was originally published as The true intellectual system of the universe, wherein all the reason and philosophy of atheism is confuted, and its impossibility demonstrated in 1678 (David A. Pailin, ‘Cudworth, Ralph (1617–1688)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Jan 2008 [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6864, accessed 5 Dec 2013]). 9 Gavin Hyman has claimed that the reason atheism appeared in the early modern period was due to a neglect of Thomas Aquinas's Doctrine of Analogy, which resulted in the re-definition of God as a being whose existence could be more readily rejected ("Atheism in Modern History" in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. Michael Martin (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), pgs 37-43). I disagree with Hyman's account for two reasons: (1) As I show in this paper, early modern atheists had good reason to reject the existence of Aquinas's God; (2) There were arguments offered by early modern atheists which were independent of one's conception of God-talk. 1 between theism and atheism. Because both of these consequences are undesirable for the theist, I conclude that Aquinas's doctrine of analogy does not withstand the assault of 18th century atheism. 2 Chapter I: The Problem of Religious Language and the Doctrine of Analogy In this chapter, I will explicate the Problem of Religious Language (or PRL) and introduce the Doctrine of Analogy as Aquinas's solution to PRL. The Problem of Religious Language10 is motivated by the doubt that God-talk is intelligible or meaningful. Historically, the issue has arisen for a variety of different reasons from both secular and theological sources. Believers and non-believers often agree that God-talk is meaningful. Although the atheist does not believe that God exists, many atheists affirm the proposition that there is an idea which they are discounting. Strictly speaking, for the claim “God does not exist” to make sense, there needs to be some semantic content to the term 'God'. If the term 'God' did not have semantic content, then the claim “God does not exist” would make as much sense as the utterance “Snoggledorf does not exist”. There are several problems in philosophy of language concerning sentences which name non-existent or fictional entities. So-called empty names are those which appear in sentences but which do not have referents. Sentences which (1) seem meaningful and (2) contain empty names are problematic because on semantic theories, such as Millianism, such sentences appear to be meaningless. If it turned out that empty names really were meaningless, such problems would evaporate.11 10 Roger White, Talking About God, (Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2010), pgs 1-6, 118-119; Jennifer Hart Weed, “Religious Language” in The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://www.iep.utm.edu/rel-lang/, Retrieved Feb 14, 2014. 11 William Lycan identifies three problems: the problem of empty names for Saul Kripke's causal- historical view of reference fixing (William Lycan, Philosophy of Language: a Contemporary Introduction Second Edition, (New York: Routledge, 2008), pg 56), the “Problem of Apparent Reference to Nonexistents” and the “Problem of Negative Existentials” for Russellianism/Millianism (ibid, pgs 3-4, 9-11). All three of these problems result from considering a sentence in which a non- 3 If atheism is true then 'God' is an empty name. Although 'God' would pose problems similar to those already posed by other empty names, it would be highly surprising if 'God' lacked meaning altogether. After all, if we were to discover that 'Zeus' and 'Poseidon' were meaningless we would be rightfully shocked. It certainly seems that Greek mythology has meaningful content, even if it is fictional. Theists understand God-talk as meaningful for obvious reasons. If the various utterances that they make in prayer, in devotion, in Church, or in other aspects of their religious lives were ultimately nothing more than noise, it seems difficult to understand what the point of all this noise would be. Thus, if God-talk were put into question, then both believers and non-believers would face a philosophical problem. Of course, denying that the term 'God' has semantic content is one way to be a non-believer. Indeed, for much of the history of atheism, such a person would have been called an atheist. For this reason, one may suspect that the semantics of religious language is a bigger problem for believers than for non-believers. In this chapter, I will do three things. First, I will consider an analogy between the project in this thesis and a hypothetical situation in metaethics. Second, I will briefly discuss the problems related to religious language as they appear in the history of theology. Fourth, I will proceed to a discussion of Aquinas's Doctrine of Analogy as a solution to PRL. existent entity is named but the sentence appears to be meaningful. Also see Kripke's discussion of unicorns in his Addenda to Naming and Necessity, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, Ltd), pgs 156-164. 4 Analogy with Metaethics There is reason to think that PRL is more of a problem for theists than it is for atheists. Consider an analogous situation in metaethics.12 Error theory is the view that moral statements are truth-apt but there are no true moral facts.13 Consequentialism is the view that there are moral facts and that these moral facts concern the particular consequences of actions.14 Error theorists would not typically deny that the moral claims of the consequentialist had semantic content. Instead, error theorists would only deny the truth of consequentialism. Nonetheless, suppose that there were good arguments for the view that the moral claims of the consequentialist were void of semantic content. In that case, the error theorist may still maintain that there are truth-apt statements about morality while denying that these are uttered by the consequentialist. Similarly, provided there are good arguments that some particular conception of God was incoherent, the atheist may deny that there are any meaningful statements about that particular conception. But the atheist may still retain the view that statements about God have semantic content, so long as a different concept of God is utilized. The arguments in this thesis address the purported semantic content of sentences about a specifically Thomistic God and thus do not impugn atheism (even narrowly construed as the denial of the existence of God). 12 David Faraci helped in developing this example. 13 Richard Joyce, “Moral Anti-Realism”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2009 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2009/entries/moral- anti-realism/>. 14 Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, “Consequentialism”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), forthcoming URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/consequentialism/>. 5 The arguments contained herein should still be of interest to the atheist for two reasons: (1) it would be rather surprising if large portions of everyday language were found to be semantically problematic and (2) as the arguments target a popular brand of theism, the atheist may find them to be rhetorically useful. I now proceed to a discussion of language with regards to the history of theology. Theological Language 1: Biblical Language There is a long standing tradition in Christian theology that there are severe limitations on one's ability to speak of God. From at least the time of the Nicene theologians in the 4th century, the Triune God was declared to be incomprehensible15 and beyond human understanding.16 This meant that any statement about God would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to understand. Worse, the Bible seems to be full of statements that contradict the notion of God as a transcendent, otherworldly being. Philosopher Roger White states: If we just consider the Bible, whether the Old Testament or the New Testament, there are frequent passages in which: human organs – mouth, eye, hand, arm and so on – are ascribed to God; in which God is given human cognitive capacities – knowing, seeing, hearing, even smelling; in which God speaks; in which human offices such as king, father or judge are assigned to God; in which God has the same kind of moral characteristics, such as justice, patience and compassion, that we ascribe to human beings, and perhaps most striking of all, in which God is described as an emotional, even passionate, being, who can be loving, jealous, angry and compassionate. 15 The idea that the Trinity is incomprehensible and is a theological mystery continues as a part of Catholicism to the present. See, for example, George Joyce's article "The Blessed Trinity" in The Catholic Encyclopedia (Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 25 Nov. 2013 <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15047a.htm>). 16 Cary, Philip. "The Incomprehensible and the Supernatural." History of Christian Theology. The Teaching Company 2008. Video Lecture. Tuggy, Dale, "Trinity: History of Trinitarian Doctrines", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2013 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/trinity/trinity-history.html>. 6