Asian Women in Corporate America: Emerging Research and Opportunities Sambhavi Lakshminarayanan Medgar Evers College, City University of New York, USA A volume in the Advances in Human Resources Management and Organizational Development (AHRMOD) Book Series Published in the United States of America by IGI Global Business Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA, USA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2021 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Lakshminarayanan, Sambhavi, 1962- author. Title: Asian women in corporate America : emerging research and opportunities / by Sambhavi Lakshminarayanan. Description: Hershey : Business Science Reference, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This book discusses the experiences of Asian women in American (business) workplaces and anticipates future developments regarding their organizational careers”-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020042213 (print) | LCCN 2020042214 (ebook) | ISBN 9781799843849 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781799868248 (paperback) | ISBN 9781799843856 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Corporate governance--United States. | Asian American women employees--United States. | Minority women executives--United States. Classification: LCC HD2741 .L315 2021 (print) | LCC HD2741 (ebook) | DDC 331.4089/95073--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020042213 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020042214 This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Human Resources Management and Organizational Development (AHRMOD) (ISSN: 2327-3372; eISSN: 2327-3380) British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected]. Advances in Human Resources Management and Organizational Development (AHRMOD) Book Series ISSN:2327-3372 EISSN:2327-3380 Editor-in-Chief: Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos, Universidad de Oviedo, Spain Mission A solid foundation is essential to the development and success of any organization and can be accomplished through the effective and careful management of an organization’s human capital. Research in human resources management and organizational development is necessary in providing business leaders with the tools and methodologies which will assist in the development and maintenance of their organizational structure. The Advances in Human Resources Management and Organizational Development (AHRMOD) Book Series aims to publish the latest research on all aspects of human resources as well as the latest methodologies, tools, and theories regarding organizational development and sustainability. 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Titles in this Series For a list of additional titles in this series, please visit: http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-human-resources-management-organizational/73670 Transforming Human Resource Functions With Automation Anchal Pathak (Bule Hora University, Ethiopia) and Shikha Rana (IMS Unison University, India) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 192pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799841807) • US $195.00 Examining the Career Development Practices and Experiences of Immigrants Jared Keengwe (University of North Dakota, USA) and Kenneth Kungu (Clayton State University, USA) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 362pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799858119) • US $215.00 Future of Work, Work-Family Satisfaction, and Employee Well-Being in the Fourth Industrial Revolution Ethel Ndidiamaka Abe (University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 382pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799833475) • US $215.00 Handbook of Research on Cyberbullying and Online Harassment in the Workplace Leslie Ramos Salazar (West Texas A&M University, USA) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 717pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799849124) • US $265.00 Integration and Application of Business Graduate and Business Leader Competency-Models Donta S. Harper (University of Washington, USA) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 275pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799865377) • US $195.00 Human Resource Management Practices for Promoting Sustainability Sulaiman Olusegun Atiku (Naimbia University of Science and Technology, Namibia) and Tinuke Fapohunda (Lagos State University, Nigeria) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 326pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799845225) • US $195.00 For an entire list of titles in this series, please visit: http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-human-resources-management-organizational/73670 701 East Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033, USA Tel: 717-533-8845 x100 • Fax: 717-533-8661 E-Mail: [email protected] • www.igi-global.com Table of Contents Preface..................................................................................................................vii Acknowledgment...............................................................................................xvii Chapter 1 Asian.Women.in.America:.An.Overview...............................................................1 Chapter 2 Structures.and.Functioning.of.Business.Organizations........................................20 Chapter 3 Organizational.Diversity.and.Culture...................................................................44 Chapter 4 Mentoring,.Networks,.and.Leadership..................................................................69 Chapter 5 Socio-Cultural.Factors.and.the.Work.Environment..............................................97 Chapter 6 Social.and.Organizational.Identities...................................................................128 Chapter 7 Organizational.Careers........................................................................................167 Chapter 8 Conclusions,.Forecasts,.and.Recommendations.................................................200 Related Readings...............................................................................................226  About the Author..............................................................................................260 Index...................................................................................................................261 vii Preface Asian women have been making their mark in America for many years. Recently we have seen the rise of high-profile Asian women in varied areas of American society and life such as government, entertainment, education, and business. These women are not exceptions; Asian women’s participation in different spheres of activity in the U.S. has been steadily increasing. There is every reason to expect that in the future there will be more Asian women among senators and representatives, judges and lawyers, movie stars and producers, doctors and nurses, teachers and principals, professors and presidents. However, their entrance in corporate America and their increasing numbers in corporate workplaces are more recent, driven largely by societal, cultural, and immigration-related legislative changes. Of special interest to this book are Asian women’s futures in organizational workspaces and C-suites of businesses large and small. (As a matter of clarification, the term “Asian women” in this book refers to women with ancestry in the countries of Asia; this group includes immigrants as well as women born in the U.S.) This book was motivated by conversations with Asian women working in businesses in the U.S. Their experiences of working in different corporations, large and small, showcase their achievements but also provide stark pictures of their struggles. Often with little family or community support, they faced great hardships in attempting to meet the often competing demands of work and family. Some Asian women found family to be a source of exceptional support, such as parents who provided childcare and encouraged their pursuit of a demanding career. Others had a contrasting experience of not only having to work and help provide for the family but also taking care of their children and elderly parents (or in-laws). Many immigrant women managed a complex life balancing family (and often parents’) demands in the U.S. and in Asia. Some felt a commitment to bring children over to Asia for visits with grandparents, which meant a commitment of time and money. Not having the option to take time off from work for such family reasons led some women Preface to routinely quit their jobs to make these trips. The willingness to persist and a clarity of purpose propelled most of these women, and they relied on their experiences in crafting career strategies. While many Asian women in corporate environments had followed a general playbook of getting education and skill-training for their jobs, they often had a lack of awareness and knowledge of the necessity of participating in organizational life in other ways. Additionally, Asian women appeared not entirely knowledgeable about how their identities and roles as women, Asians, and Asian women impacted their navigation of the organizational workplace. There has been extensive and exceptional research done in the area of women (in general) and organizational work. At the same time, there is a paucity of published work on Asian women in corporate workplaces. Women are not a monolith; what is relevant and useful for one group might not be so for another. Thus, many aspects of general research on women might not apply directly to Asian women, and there is a need to modify those findings. Indeed, without details on Asian women’s careers and experiences, the picture of women in American organizations is incomplete. The aim of this book is thus threefold: to provide information about Asian women and American work environments; to highlight areas where there is need for more research and a deeper understanding of the situations of Asian women in corporate America; and to function as a primer on work in business organizations for Asian women at entry and middle levels. Knowledge of the complexity and breadth of women’s experiences, outlooks, and effective strategies across all groups will be invaluable for businesses, organizations, and society at large. SOCIETAL CHANGES AFFECTING WOMEN IN THE U.S. AND ASIA American society—like all societies—is constantly changing, with steady shifts punctuated by periods of intense change. Each wave of transformative changes has impacted a wide swath of American life in a deep and lasting manner, and eventually these developments had global impacts as well. The 1960s, for instance, was a period of seismic societal and legislative changes. Of particular interest to this book is the evolution of the status and role of women in American society, which has profoundly changed over the last few decades as women began seeking to earn a livelihood by pursuing education and working for pay. This was a drastic shift from earlier social norms that viii Preface dictated women’s role as (unpaid) homemakers. As women envisioned a different social role for themselves, they began entering the labor market in increasing numbers and affected prevalent attitudes about women’s work. It is now the societal norm in the U.S. for women to work outside the home (even if such employment is sporadic rather than continual). This major change has been the result of steady persistence at the individual and employee levels as well as demands by certain high-profile women for impactful social and legal changes (such as parity in pay). On the other side of the world, cultures in Asian countries underwent major changes of their own. These changes gained momentum after the 1950s (historical explanations for this are available through many sources). Specifically, the status, lifestyle, and role of women in these cultures started changing as women in many countries began to pursue education in increasing numbers. With every generation the level of education rose. Thus, for a middle- class woman reaching adulthood in the 1970s and 1980s, it was likely that her great-grandmother had had no formal schooling, while her grandmother went through elementary schooling and her mother was probably a high school—or even a college—graduate. For such women, obtaining a college education was not only possible, it was expected. This shift in norms related to women’s education aligned with a general societal view that education was a reliable pathway to socio-economic progress. Increasing socio-economic development in Asian countries gave rise to many professional careers that require specialized education, such as doctors, engineers, lawyers, and accountants, to name a few. Professional careers like these were considered not only prestigious but also secure and well-compensated. Thus, there was a general willingness to pursue higher education as a means to a financially stable future. Asian cultures underwent another wave of change with the advent of technology, which opened up opportunities in new kinds of jobs. Even as these technological advances created new jobs and altered current ones, societal views on what could be considered “good” jobs also changed. Technology-related jobs were considered desirable, both because they were seen as good career choices and because they were well-compensated. Over time all these changes made it easier for women to be educated (and employed) in Asian countries. Meanwhile, in the U.S., major changes in immigration policy in the 1960s and 1990s had a major impact on patterns of Asian immigration. As a result immigration increased in numbers, but the kinds of immigrants (related to their reasons for immigrating) changed as well. Qualified and educated Asian immigrants, many of whom had been educated in Asian countries, immigrated ix Preface in search of employment in the U.S. There was also a corresponding increase in the number of students from Asia seeking higher education (graduate and doctoral programs) in the U.S. These groups, consisting of employment- seekers and students, included women, although not in the same numbers as men. Some women also came to the U.S. as spouses of members of these two groups. They were likely to be educated, and some were even trained professionals. In other words, there was a significant increase in the number of Asian women who were ready to enter the American workforce. While other kinds of immigration continued (for example, family members of those who had already arrived), these three groups had arguably the biggest impact in terms of entry into corporations. ASIAN WOMEN AND CORPORATE WORKPLACES In many ways, corporate workplaces have been a good fit for Asian women. Employment in the U.S. is overwhelmingly located in the private sector; data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics show 78% of the labor force is in the private sector, with only 15% in the public sector and about 7% in nonprofits (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics). In the private sector, the workforce is split almost fifty-fifty between small businesses and large ones. Thus, it is not surprising that many Asian women have sought employment in the corporate world. These workplaces can be fairly structured and even regulated environments (in certain areas), and in many workplaces the work and role requirements are clear. The private sector might offer quicker entry into the workforce (although these jobs could have an equally swift exit) compared to public- sector jobs and better compensation compared to nonprofits. Departments and specialized work are a good fit for Asian women with education, professional qualifications, and training in related fields. Thus, businesses both large and small continue to be attractive workplace options for Asian women. Larger corporations can offer more stability, possibilities for specialized work, and better compensation than smaller firms. Their organizational environments are likely to be more structured and to operate under clearer guidelines. On the other hand, smaller firms can be more flexible, less impersonal, and offer more opportunities to develop complex and diverse work skills. However, as the recent coronavirus pandemic has shown, smaller businesses are far more vulnerable to economic and social upheavals. Thus, both large and small corporate environments can be equally challenging for women, albeit in different ways. Ultimately, the skills x