INTRODUCTION A BRIEF VIEW OF THE PLAY As You Like It, with its cross-dressed heroine, gender games and explorations of sexual ambivalence, its Forest of Arden and melancholy Jaques, speaks directly to the twenty-first century. Although the play is rooted in Elizabethan culture - literary, social, political, aesthetic - Shakespeare has placed a prophetic finger on the pulse of the future. Amongst the myths of classical pastoral and of the biblical Garden of Eden are a group of dis- placed persons fleeing family disruption and political corruption. In raising profound questions about the nature of liberty, renewal and regeneration posed by the new environment of the Forest, Shakespeare has created a comedy of extraordinary flexibility and depth. This edition sets As You Like It within its theatrical, cultural, social and historical contexts. The play's cross-dressed heroine, Rosalind, its language, its perfect exploiting of a theatrical medium, its connections with the Court and with theatrical controversy, and its philosophical and imaginative scope, all contribute to a phenomenal richness. Probably written at the end of 1598, perhaps first performed early in 1599, and first printed in the First Folio in 1623, As You Like It marks the culmination of the golden decade of Shakespeare's plays in the 1590s. Even though moments in the earlier comedies anticipate the play, its novelty is still startling. It demonstrates a confluence of high and low culture, combining within one harmonious whole many different traditions. The folk- lore of Robin Hood and his merry men is married to the classical 1 Introduction ideal of the Golden Age, from both Virgil's Eclogues and Ovid's Metamorphoses. The refinement of pastoral, itself an intermin- gling of pagan and Christian traditions, is counterpointed with the fabliau ribaldry of Rabelais's Gargantua and Pantagruel (1532-4, well known in England in the 1590s1), and of Chaucer's Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale (reprinted in 1598). At the end of the Tale, the knight allows his old wife the 'soverainte' and 'maistry' (fol. 37v) which women desire: 'For as you liketh, it suff- iseth me' (fol. 38v); Shakespeare may have echoed the phrase in the title of a play which certainly allows one woman sovereignty.2 Petrarchan love poetry is undercut by Touchstone's parody and Jaques's satire, and the play develops a rhythmic, fast-moving, imaginative prose beyond anything in Shakespeare's previous plays. The high romance world of Ariosto's Orlando Furioso (translated by Sir John Harington in 1591) coexists m As You Like It with dramatic traditions of performance and narrative inher- ited from the old mumming plays and from John Heywood's interludes for the court of Henry VIII. There are elements of fairy-tale (the three brothers, the eldest wicked, the youngest vir- tuous) deriving from the fourteenth-century Tale of Gamely n and from a more immediate Elizabethan source: Thomas Lodge's prose novella, Rosalynde (1590).3 As You Like It is perfectly poised between the comedies of the 1590s and the romances of Shakespeare's post-tragic period: Pericles (1607-8), Cymbeline (1609-10), The Winter's Tale (1610-11), The Tempest (\(>\\), The Two Noble Kinsmen (1612-13) and Henry VIII (1612-13). Valentine's joining of the outlaws in the forest in The Two Gentlemen of Verona (probably Shakespeare's 1 Gargantua was available in a new edition from Lyons in 1573. Many of Shakespeare's contemporaries — Sir John Harington, John Donne, Ben Jonson, Thomas Nashe, Gabriel Harvey - refer to Rabelais, and Huntington Brown suggests that Jonson might have introduced Shakespeare to his work (31-70; see also Ard2, 71; Dusinberre, 'As WhoV, 10-14). 2 Dusinberre, 'Rival poets', 76-7. 3 Reprinted in 1592, 1596 and 1598, 1604 and 1609; in the 1612 edition and subse- quently in 1624, 1634 and 1642 the title Rosalynde was replaced by the subtitle Euphues Golden Legacy (see p. 80). 2 Introduction first comedy and perhaps his earliest play) offers a preview of Duke Senior and his exiled courtiers in the Forest of Arden. The relation of Julia and Silvia in the same play (though in some ways nearer to Viola and Olivia in Twelfth Night than to Rosalind and Celia) nevertheless marks out - in Julia's disguise as a page - the ground of Shakespeare's virtuoso capacity to convert the convention of boy actors playing women's parts from a restriction to a resource. In A Midsummer Night's Dream (1595-6), despite the different atmos- phere of the wood outside Athens in which the lovers, fairies and eventually Theseus and Hippolyta all meet, the dramatist creates, as later in As You Like It, a 'green world' away from the court. The Merchant of Venice ( 1596-7) and Much Ado About Nothing ( 1598-9) feature in Portia and Beatrice powerful women who, like Rosalind, suggest parallels with Elizabeth I, before whose court - as well as at the public theatre - most of the comedies would have been per- formed. Much Ado develops in the sparring of Beatrice and Benedick a flexible witty prose, perfected in As You Like It in the interchanges between Rosalind and Celia, Rosalind (as Ganymede) and Orlando, and between Touchstone and everyone else. In XS^ Julius Caesar heralded the great tragedies of the new century. As You Like It, with its interplay of familial and political disruption, foreshadows King Lear. The melancholy Jaques, at odds with his world, looks forward to Hamlet in 1600. The glow of comic festivity in Twelfth Night (performed at the Middle Temple at Christmas in 1602) is darkened by a certain distance from its own revelry. The earlier comedy is more at ease with its own merriment, although its gaiety is sharpened - especially in relation to the corruption of Duke Frederick's court - by a dash of the satirical and critical spirit which will animate All's Well That Ends Well (1602), Measure for Measure (1603) and Timon of Athens (1609), in which the forest of Timon's exile gives birth not to joie de vivre but to misanthropy. In Arden melancholy only spices and enhances the experience of mirth. The special lyricism of As You Like It looks back to Richard II and forward to the pastoral fourth act of The Winter's Tale and to 3 Introduction the Utopian setting of Prosperous isle. The wedding masque for Miranda and Ferdinand in The Tempest recalls Hymen and the wedding songs of the last scene of As You Like It. The pastoral masque in Henry VIII, where the king enters as a shepherd, is a reminder of the courtly dimension - taken for granted by edu- cated Elizabethans — of the pastoral genre. The tournament in Pericles, with the unknown knight in rusty armour, conjures up the wrestling contest in which Orlando proves his fitness as chivalric hero. As You Like It, more allied to the last plays than any of the other comedies, nevertheless remains rooted in Shakespeare's comic world of the 1590s. The outstanding comic creation of that theatrical decade, the rotund figure of Shakespeare's Falstaff, inhabits not comedy but history. Although some scholars have argued that Touchstone, the jester in As You Like It, was played by the actor Robert Armin, for whom the later roles of witty fool (Feste in Twelfth Night, the Fool in King Lear) seem in part to have been fashioned, others have expressed doubts.1 This edition suggests that Touchstone may originally have been played by Shakespeare's clown, Will Kemp. The irreverent energy of Rabelais's Gargantua and Pantagruel courses through As You Like It - as it had also coursed through the veins of Shakespeare's fat knight — erupting not least in the uninhibited jokes of the 'ladies': 'I prithee', cries Rosalind, 'take the cork out of thy mouth that I may drink thy tidings.' 'So you may put a man in your belly,' retorts Celia, in an interchange (3.2.196-8) routinely cut in the nineteenth century. Who played Rosalind in Shakespeare's theatre? The research of David Kathman into apprentices on the London stage has brought us nearer to answering that question.2 In the team-world 1 See Ard2, li-lv, for Agnes Latham's uncertainty about whether Kemp or Armin played the role of Touchstone. David Wiles (116-35) argues for Kemp's playing Falstaff; but David Scott Kastan points to the possibility of Thomas Pope's playing the role, with John Lowin assuming it later on (Kastan, '1H4\ 78-9). According to The Return from Parnassus, Part 2 (1601-2; line 1851), Kemp may have played Justice Shallow in 2 Henry IV (see 3.2.54, 58n.), making his playing of Falstaff in 1 Henry /f less likely. 2 Kathman, 'Apprentices', 'Sins', 'Boy actors'; see Appendix 2. 4 Introduction of early modern theatre companies, where women were acted by boys, there was no star to claim the role, as it has (since the Restoration) been claimed by every aspiring actress. Rosalind's dynamism leaps off the page. If she dominated Shakespeare's theatre, her real arena is in the mind of the audience, which she effortlessly subjugates and draws to her lodestone, just as the magnetic shepherd boy, Ganymede, draws Orlando to imagine the woman he loves. The part of Rosalind dominates the play, but the domain of the Forest of Arden is equally compelling. The envy and constraint of Frederick's court sets the scene for the contrast of freedom and good fellowship in the Forest of Arden, an environment which exploits Elizabethan love of the hunt, dancing, singing and pastoral merriment. Literary pastoral, an artistic mode deriving from the classics, may be alien to a modern urban audience, but the Romantic and modern longing for an escape from city life flourishes in the same subsoil. The magic circle of Elizabeth's court, like any elite group, drew its life-blood from exclusion; its mystique was nurtured and maintained by a ruthless and fluctuating discrimination between insiders and outsiders. Elizabeth's courtiers - the Earl of Essex, Sir John Harington, Sir Walter Ralegh, Sir Robert Cecil - all had their country estates to which they escaped to sulk, lick their wounds and evade trouble, or to which the queen peremptorily banished them as a mark of her disfavour. If in such circum- stances life in the country seemed like exile, it looked more inviting when the queen went on her progresses and was royally and loyally entertained - at vast expense - by her nobles. As You Like It has much in common with the pastoral enter- tainments mounted for the queen during the 1590s, in which (as earlier in Sir Philip Sidney's The Lady of May at Wanstead in 1578 or 1579l) the presence of the queen herself often became a central 1 Sidney's masque could have been performed in either year (Duncan-Jones, intro- duction to The Lady of May, 13). It included Robin Hood, as did other such entertainments (J. Wilson, 146n.). 5 Introduction element in the performance staged for her welcome. The entire court traversed the country in summertime for a taste of carefully orchestrated rustic living, when the monarch might meet the 'people' in a mode in which Elizabeth, richly endowed with the 'common touch', excelled. The role of Rosalind has some corre- spondence with that of the queen, who was the 'cynosure ... of Elizabethan pastoralism'.1 This correspondence may have origi- nated in part in the 'January' and 'April' eclogues of Edmund Spenser's Shepheardes Calender (1579), where Colin Clout's love is named 'Rosalinde'. The poet explains through E.K.'s gloss for 'January' that 'Rosalinde, is also a feigned name, which, being wel ordered wil bewray the very name of hys love and mistresse, whom by that name he coloureth' (p. 447). The well-ordering of the name 'Rosalinde' can produce the anagram 'Elisadorn'.2 Inherent in Rosalind's mastery in the Forest of Arden is arguably Elizabeth (see Fig. 18) the royal 'shepherd' with her flock of English subjects. Rosalind in Arden is as much a 'Queene of shep- heardes all' (SC, 'April', p. 455) as Elizabeth was in the Earl of Leicester's Kenilworth in 1575. The courtly mode of the pastoral allowed its practitioners a covert language of jokes and innuen- does which Shakespeare exploits in his pastoral play. There is no record of a performance of As You Like It in the public theatre, despite popular unfounded conviction that it was first produced in the opening season of the Globe, 1599-1600. An extant document in the Public Record Office (see Fig. 9 and p. 43) lists the play among those owned in 1609 by the private theatre at Blackfriars. Most of Shakespeare's plays were staged both at court and in the public theatre, and As You Like It is probably no excep- tion. But there is circumstantial evidence to suggest that there might have been a first performance before the Court early in 1599. In 1972 William Ringler and Steven May suggested that an epilogue found by May in the commonplace book of Henry 1 Montrose, 'Elisa', 154; see also Patterson, 126-32. 2 Dusinberre, 'As Who\ 16; Marcus, 'Heroines', 135-7, 145, 148; Goldberg, 152-3. 6 Introduction Stanford was probably by Shakespeare, a view accepted by G. Blakemore Evans when he printed it in the Riverside edition (1974, reprinted 1997), and more recently by Brian Vickers in 'Counterfeiting' Shakespeare.1 This edition suggests that the play which Ringler and May's epilogue followed may have been As You Like It. If so, it was performed on Shrove Tuesday, 20 February 1599, when the Court was at Richmond Palace.2 If this was the case, As You Like It would have received 'hall' staging, as Twelfth Night did in the Middle Temple in 1602. May has pointed out in private communication that there are no specific stage directions in the play which require the special resources of the public theatre. However, Shakespeare's adapta- tion of Lodge's Rosalynde demonstrates a sophisticated awareness of stage space, of audience interaction with the players, and of the players themselves as spectators of their own play There is a high level of self-conscious performance, not just in the roles of Touchstone, the fool and entertainer, and Jaques, the cynical com- mentator on other people's follies (both Shakespearean inventions with no counterpart in Lodge). The courtship of Orlando and Rosalind is an extended play, and Rosalind and Celia are invited to watch the pageant of Silvius's rejection by the scornful Phoebe. The drama begins with a performance — in the wrestling of Charles and Orlando - and ends with two youthful Pages singing a beautiful Morley song, and a wedding masque to rival anything in the last plays. Its distinctive characters all speak their own distinctive language. As You Like It provides a more varied palette of verse forms and prose rhythms than is present in any earlier play. Shakespeare recasts some of the best moments of Love's Labour's Lost in the new comedy. Orlando's poetry is recited by Rosalind and Celia and parodied by Touchstone in a sequence reminiscent of the reading of love sonnets composed in the earlier play by the four 1 Ringler & May. See Riv, Appendix B, 32: 1851-52; Riv2, Appendix C, 32: 1978. Vickers, 'Counterfeiting', 427-9. 2 Dusinberre, 'Pancakes'; see pp. 37—41 below and Appendix 1. 7 Introduction lovesick courtiers, each eavesdropping on the previous speaker. Blank verse (mocked by Jaques as the affectation of a lover) is the medium not only for Duke Senior's beautiful meditation on the Forest of Arden (2.1.1-17), but also for Duke Frederick's harsh- est utterances. Orlando's Petrarchan verses are derided (though no doubt relished as well) by Rosalind for being too long, like a bad sermon, just as (in the guise of Ganymede) she scoffs at the claims of the great romantic lovers of classical mythology to die for love. The heroine makes short work of the tripping couplets in Phoebe's love-letter to Ganymede. The play oscillates between verse and a lucid, expressive prose which is never far removed from the rhythms of poetry, necessi- tating difficult discriminations by editors on lines which in the First Folio text could be either. Shakespeare rewrites the love- longing of Petrarchan sonnet and Italian epic romance in vernacular prose, a medium particularly associated with women1 and (in As You Like It) the fool, with whom Rosalind and Celia share outsider status. Viola, Juliet and Cleopatra express their love in poetry. But Rosalind - like Beatrice in Much Ado - fashions hers in prose, which in As You Like It comes of age as the medium of romantic love. The dramatist again proves prophetic, for the great love stories of the future will be charted not in epic romance but in the prose of a new literary form hospitable to women writers, the novel. It is hard to recapture in the modern theatre the inflammatory potential of the play, especially in its use of the boy actor, which on the Elizabethan stage in 1599 offered audacious provocation to detractors who attacked the theatre for telling lies (like all poetry), for cross-dressing and for encouraging licentious assembly. Sidney's posthumously published Apology for Poetry (1595), at which Touchstone glances in 3.3, provided a resounding response to the tribe of Stephen Gosson (an unsuccessful playwright turned preacher). Lodge, author of Rosalynde, had been in the 1 Henderson & Siemon, 208; Lewalski, Writing Women; Hannay; Parker, 'Tongue'; Bruster; Dusinberre, Women, li-liii, lxix-lxx, 114, and Woolf's Renaissance, 164^8. 8 Introduction early 1580s one of the first to defend the theatre (see the untitled 'A reply') against Gosson's diatribes. Gosson proclaimed that music was an effeminizing and degenerate influence, a slur to which Thomas Morley, who wrote the contemporary setting of 'It was a lover and his lass' (5.3), responded as bitterly as Lodge did. The use of the boy actor to impersonate women became the focal point of vituperation of the theatre, on the grounds that cross-dressing excited homoerotic feeling both in the actors on stage and in the audience.1 (What the many women in the audi- ence were expected to feel was not part of the argument.) Into this arena prances Rosalind, planning to court Orlando while cross- dressed as the shepherd boy Ganymede. As You Like It touches some of the deepest chords of human experience. But it also draws elements of its unique vitality from particular circumstances, particular personalities and particular theatrical conditions in Shakespeare's own society. FICTIONS OF GENDER Rosalind and the boy actor The part of Rosalind manifests an awareness of gender as perfor- mance which has become an indispensable part of contemporary understanding of Shakespeare. Feminist thought has highlighted the audacity and originality of Shakespeare's conception of Rosalind, analysing the ways in which the play participates in an Elizabethan questioning of attitudes to women. The narrative of Rosalind's stage history tells as much about women's roles outside the theatre as it does about their representation on stage. Rosalind is witty, voluble, educated and imaginative; spirited and energetic; a woman who faints at the sight of her lover's blood; an imperious shepherd; a powerful magician who arranges the marriages at the 1 Levine, 4, 19-25; Traub, 118-19. See M. Shapiro, Appendix C, for records of cross- dressing prosecutions. The compilers, Mark Benbow and Alastair D.K. Hawkyard, note: 'By the 1590s the court [Bridewell Court] was inundated with a flood of vagrants, and sexual misdemeanors were less threatening than the potential for insta- bility arising from masterless men and women' (225). 9 Introduction end of the play; and a saucy boy who returns to speak the epilogue. Shakespeare plays with gender by creating for the boy who acts Rosalind another fictional character whom he must perform: the shepherd boy in the Forest of Arden whom Rosalind chooses for her disguise as a man. The name she gives him, Ganymede, carries multiple associations in the play. In classical mythology Ganymede is the cup-bearer of Jove, whose passion for the youth he had seized and abducted to Olympus - when disguised as an eagle - incensed Juno. The name Ganymede is conventional to classical pastoral. However, it allows the playwright to explore the homoerotic as well as the heterosexual.1 The corrupted form of Ganymede is 'catamite', a boy hired for his sexual services.2 But where in other dramatic contexts a 'Ganymede' is tainted with the disreputable, in As You Like It this hinterland is playful. The name was also emblematic of 'intelligence, or rational thought' and formed part of the mythology of the Medici.3 Another significant aspect of Rosalind's choice of name in her disguise relates to the figure of Hymen, who presides over the wedding masque in 5.4. In book 9 of Ovid's Metamorphoses, Hymen officiates with Juno at the wedding of Iphis and Ianthe. Iphis, a girl, has been brought up as a boy, and can only marry Ianthe when Hymen allows her to change sex, as at the end of John Lyly's play Galatea (also probably developed from this moment in Ovid). Arthur Golding's 1567 translation of Ovid reads: ' The vowes that Iphys vowed a wench he hath performd a Lad' ( 123r).4 The wedding at the end of As You Like It is a joyous hetero- sexual celebration in a way that neither Ovid's nor Lyly's is. 1 Szatek, 357-8; DiGangi, 23; Traub, 124-5; Orgel, Impersonations, 51. 2 Cf. Jonson, Poetaster. 'Fill us a bowl of nectar, Ganymede' (4.5.59). Jonson's Ganymede is addressed as 'catamite'. See Marlowe, Dido; cf. Marston, Scourge: 'Yon effeminate sanguine Ganimede, / Is but a Beuer [beaver, i.e. a bedcover] hunted for the bed' (Satire 7, p. 74). 3 Saslow, 17; see also Panofsky, 212. 4 E.K. Chambers gives details of a lost play, ""Iphis and Iantha\ attributed in the seventeenth century to 'WS' (Chambers, ES, 3.489; 4.397, 401; and especially WS 1.538). 10