Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 6738 EditedbyR.Goebel,J.Siekmann,andW.Wahlster Subseries of Lecture Notes in Computer Science Gautam Biswas Susan Bull Judy Kay Antonija Mitrovic (Eds.) Artificial Intelligence in Education 15th International Conference, AIED 2011 Auckland, New Zealand, June 28 – July 1, 2011 1 3 SeriesEditors RandyGoebel,UniversityofAlberta,Edmonton,Canada JörgSiekmann,UniversityofSaarland,Saarbrücken,Germany WolfgangWahlster,DFKIandUniversityofSaarland,Saarbrücken,Germany VolumeEditors GautamBiswas VanderbiltUniversity,EECSDepartment,Nashville,TN37325,USA E-mail:[email protected] SusanBull TheUniversityofBirmingham Electronic,ElectricalandComputerEngineering,UK E-mail:[email protected] JudyKay UniversityofSydney,SchoolofInformationTechnologies,Australia E-mail:[email protected] AntonijaMitrovic UniversityofCanterbury,CollegeofEngineering DepartmentofComputerScienceandSoftwareEngineering,NewZealand E-mail:[email protected] ISSN0302-9743 e-ISSN1611-3349 ISBN978-3-642-21868-2 e-ISBN978-3-642-21869-9 DOI10.1007/978-3-642-21869-9 SpringerHeidelbergDordrechtLondonNewYork LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2011929498 CRSubjectClassification(1998):I.2,K.3,H.4,H.5 LNCSSublibrary:SL7–ArtificialIntelligence ©Springer-VerlagBerlinHeidelberg2011 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.Allrightsarereserved,whetherthewholeorpartofthematerialis concerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,re-useofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting, reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherway,andstorageindatabanks.Duplicationofthispublication orpartsthereofispermittedonlyundertheprovisionsoftheGermanCopyrightLawofSeptember9,1965, initscurrentversion,andpermissionforusemustalwaysbeobtainedfromSpringer.Violationsareliable toprosecutionundertheGermanCopyrightLaw. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,etc.inthispublicationdoesnotimply, evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevantprotectivelaws andregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Typesetting:Camera-readybyauthor,dataconversionbyScientificPublishingServices,Chennai,India Printedonacid-freepaper SpringerispartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia(www.springer.com) Preface The15thInternationalConferenceonArtificialIntelligenceinEducation(AIED 2011)was the next in a longstanding series ofbiennial internationalconferences for high-quality research in intelligent systems and cognitive science for edu- cational computing applications. The conference provides opportunities for the cross-fertilizationof approaches,techniques and ideas fromthe many areasthat makeupthisinterdisciplinaryfield,including:agenttechnologies,artificialintel- ligence,computerscience,cognitiveandlearningsciences,education,educational technologies, game design, psychology, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, lin- guistics, and the many domain-specific applications for which AIED systems have been designed, deployed and evaluated. To reflect the range of interests that combine advanced technology with ad- vanced understanding of learners, learning, and the context of learning, the theme of AIED 2011 was “Next-Generation Learning Environments: Support- ing Cognitive, Metacognitive, Social and Affective Aspects of Learning.” This grew out of the key requirements identified by the editors of the previous AIED proceedings: Vania Dimitrova, Riichiro Mizoguchi, Benedict du Boulay and Art Graesser. As they pointed out, AIED involves “multidisciplinary research that links theory and technology from artificial intelligence, cognitive science and computer science with theory and practice from education and the social sciences.” The broad theme adopted for AIED 2011 was well-represented in the pro- gram, with contributions related to each of the issues. Furthermore, there was much overlap, with individual papers addressing two or more of these areas, andillustratingavarietyofthemoretraditionalartificialintelligencetechniques as well as those developed to take advantage of growing twenty-first century technologies and related skills. AIED is both keeping up with and leading such developments.Weanticipatefurthergrowthtowardsocialandcollaborativetech- nologies in time for the next conference, as the more mature AIED research is increasingly harnessed to support new (and ever-changing) technologies and learning contexts in formal and informal settings. The inherently interdisciplinary nature of the field made it very difficult to define specific categories into which to place papers in the Table of Contents for the conference proceedings. Most papers could have been logically catego- rizedinto severalthemes,basedonthe particulartechnologicalapproachesthey used, the type of system, the methods used in the research, and the teaching domain(s), etc. It is in the nature of our goals to address real problems in sup- porting learning, and so our work inevitably needs to bring together different stands of research. After much deliberation, rather than make what would to someextentbe arbitrarychoices,we decidedto listpapersin alphabeticalorder by author. We see this as a positive comment on the field of AIED: it is truly VI Preface multidisciplinarynotonlyintheareascoveredingeneral,butalsowithinspecific researchprojects. AIED 2011 received 193 submissions in the categories Full Paper, Poster, andYoungResearcherTrack(YRT),from28countriesworldwide.Manyofthese werefromNorthAmericaandEurope,buttheincreaseinsubmissionsfromAsia in recent years continued. Many submissions also came from Australia, New Zealand, and nearby places—the location of this conference perhaps playing a part in raising awareness of AIED in the region, and hopefully leading to increased research interest in the coming years. TheinternationalProgrammeCommittee(PC)andSeniorProgrammeCom- mittee (SPC) comprised members from 22 countries. Their areas of expertise matchedwellwiththe categoriesinwhichpapersweresubmitted. This notonly madeiteasiertoassignreviewers,butalsoconfirmedthatthePCandSPCwere representative of the current areas of interest in AIED. Of the 153 Full Paper submissions, 49 (32%) were selected for oral presen- tation at the conference (8 proceedings pages). Some good submissions could not be accepted, as the cut-off was set very high. Posters offer high quality but perhaps less mature research,allowing for dissemination of newer developments andpromisingideas(3 proceedingspages).The YRT offersPhDresearchersthe opportunity to present their research orally (3 proceedings pages), or in poster form, during the YRT session. The acceptance rate for oral YRT presentation was 39%. The aim is to encourage new researchers to discuss their work with othernewresearchersandswapexperiences;andalsototalktomoreexperienced membersofthefieldtogainfeedbackontheirideasfromtheinternationalAIED community. Individual mentoring is also available. Allpapers,postersandYRT submissionswerereviewedbyatleastthreePC members, at least one of whom was a member of the SPC. There was then a discussion phase amongst the reviewers of each submission, where any inconsis- tencieswereconsideredbeforeafinalmeta-reviewwasproducedbyamemberof the SPC. Authors received each of the three or four original reviews, as well as the meta-review.We thankthe PCandSPCfortheir diligenceinreviewingand providingusefulandconstructivefeedback,andfortheirwillingnesstoengagein discussionaboutpapers until a consensus (or conclusion)was reached.So many members of the committees did an outstanding job that it would be difficult to highlightparticularindividuals.WewouldliketheSPCandPCtoknowthatwe received unsolicited and very positive comments from authors about the help- fulness of the reviews – not only in cases where papers were accepted, but also in many cases where they were not. The conference also had three invited keynote speakers: Janet Metcalfe, speakingaboutmetacognitivelyguidedstudyintheregionofproximallearning; Stellan Ohlsson on multiple mechanisms for deep learning; and John Sweller, discussing cognitive load theory and e-learning. These talks were highly rele- vant to some of the core AIED considerations, as well as being important in underpinning continuing developments and shifts in the field. Preface VII In addition to the above,AIED 2011hadan exciting Interactive EventsSes- sion,whereparticipantscouldseedemonstrationsandtryoutAIEDapplications. Workshopsallowdetailedpresentationsanddiscussionsfocussedaroundspecific themes,andatutorialprovidedengaginginteractionanddiscussionofadvanced AIEDresearch.Paneldiscussionsprovidedinsight,reflection,andmultipleview- points (positive and negative) on the current state of the art, and promising directions for the future from some of the field’s leaders. ThistimetheconferencewasheldattheUniversityofAuckland,NewZealand. TheoriginallyselectedlocationwastheUniversityofCanterbury,New Zealand, but following the earthquakein Christchurchon February22,2011,whichdam- aged much of the city’s infrastructure, the local Organizing Committee worked hard to find a feasible and affordable alternative at short notice1. The Univer- sityofAucklandverygenerouslyofferedtheirspace,andwethankthemforthis, as it was a major factor in helping to continue the conference on (almost) the originallyplanneddates,andfitting the allocatedbudget.We alsothank Moffat Matthews, from the University of Canterbury, for visiting venues and sorting out many of the unexpected problems as swiftly as was possible under these circumstances. The OrganizingCommittee was invaluablein helping to put together agood program, to seek sponsorship, and to publicize the conference. H. Chad Lane and Brent Martin were extremely energetic in bringing together the Interactive Events; Pramuditha Suraweera proficiently oversaw the YRT process, helping newer researchers to understand the purpose of the YRT, as well as answering all their questions; Riichiro Mizoguchi and Bert Bredeweg sought an exciting tutorial – relevant to the many quickly developing directions of the field, while at the same time being sufficiently mature for a tutorial; Cristina Conati and Isabel Fernandez de Castro worked incredibly hard on obtaining workshop pro- posals,andonorganizingthewholeworkshopprocess;Tak-WaiChanandRafael Morales took over liaison with the local organizers once the final numbers for poster presentations were known, and communicated with the authors about poster requirements; and Jim Greer and Monique Grandbastien chased lively, eloquent people for panel discussions. General publicity for the conference was ablyhandledbyPeterBrusilovskyandRoseLuckin,withMoffatMatthewspro- viding an excellent website and other online support for the conference. Lewis Johnson and Chee-Kit Looi tracked down sponsorship in a global economically difficulttime.Inadditiontothosealreadymentioned,wehadhelpfromafew“lo- cal”people:JamesR.Segedy(Vanderbilt),MatthewD.Johnson(Birmingham), andstudentvolunteersattheconference.Wealsobenefittedfrompreviousexpe- riences in various aspects of conference organizationoffered by Vincent Aleven, Art Graesser and Jack Mostow. To all these people we offer our sincere thanks. 1 Wealsoexpressoursympathiesforthevictimsoftheterribleearthquakeandtsunami in northern Japan. While it is reassuring to learn that most of theresearchers from our community are safe, we do extend our sincere support to our colleagues and others who are still recovering from thedevastating tragedy. VIII Preface Finally, we would also like to thank the authors. Of course, we acknowledge their exciting research contributions and are delighted that they chose AIED 2011astheconferenceatwhichtopresenttheirwork.Butthisyeartheyalsohad to deal with uncertainty about the conference location, late information about registration costs because of the necessary re-budgeting, and other associated difficulties. We were impressed by the way in which people took this in their stride,andwaitedsopatientlyfordecisionstobereached.TheAIEDcommunity has clearly demonstrated that it is an affable, understanding community. Despitetheunanticipateddifficulties,weverymuchenjoyedputtingtogether this conference. Being scattered around the world meant that at crucial times therewasalwaysatleastonepersonawakesomewherewithAIED2011ontheir mind. There was also always at least one person ready to take over, to allow us to sleep. We enjoyed being in the same time zone in what turned out to be a stimu- lating conference. Gautam Biswas Susan Bull Judy Kay Antonija Mitrovic Organization International Artificial Intelligence in Education Society Management Board Judy Kay, University of Sydney, Australia - President (2009-2011) Jack Mostow, Carnegie Mellon University, USA - President Elect Art Graesser,University of Memphis, USA - Secretary / Treasurer James Lester, University of North Carolina, USA - Journal Editor Advisory Board Claude Frasson University of Montreal, Canada Monique Grandbastien Universit´e Henri Poincar´e,France Jim Greer University of Saskatchewan, Canada Lewis Johnson University of Southern California, USA Alan Lesgold University of Pittsburgh, USA Executive Committee Members Vincent Aleven Carnegie Mellon University, USA Joseph E. Beck Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA Ben du Boulay University of Sussex, UK Jacqueline Bourdeau T´el´e-Universit´edu Quebec, Canada Susan Bull University of Birmingham, UK TakWai Chan National Central University, Taiwan Cristina Conati University of British Columbia, Canada Ricardo Conejo Universidad de M´alaga, Spain Vania Dimitrova University of Leeds, UK Ulrich Hoppe University of Duisburg, Germany Susanne Lajoie McGill University, Canada Rosemary Luckin University of London, UK Riichiro Mizoguchi Osaka University, Japan Albert Corbett Carnegie Mellon University, USA H. Chad Lane University of Southern California, USA Chee-Kit Looi Nanyang TechnologicalUniversity, Singapore Antonija Mitrovic University of Canterbury, New Zealand Jack Mostow Carnegie Mellon University, USA Helen Pain University of Edinburgh, UK Julita Vassileva University of Saskatchewan, Canada Beverly Woolf University of Massachusetts, USA