Dickinson College Dickinson Scholar Student Scholarship & Creative Works By Year Student Scholarship & Creative Works 1-30-2004 Visualizing a Mission: Artifacts and Imagery of the Carlisle Indian School, 1879-1918 Molly Fraust Dickinson College Stephanie Latini Dickinson College Kathleen McWeeney Dickinson College Kathryn M. Moyer Dickinson College Laura Turner Dickinson College See next page for additional authors Follow this and additional works at:http://scholar.dickinson.edu/student_work Part of theIndigenous Studies Commons Recommended Citation Earenfight, Phillip, et al.Visualizing a Mission: Artifacts and Imagery of the Carlisle Indian School, 1879-1918.Carlisle, Pa.: The Trout Gallery, Dickinson College, 2004. This Exhibition Catalog is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Scholarship & Creative Works at Dickinson Scholar. It has been accepted for inclusion in Student Scholarship & Creative Works By Year by an authorized administrator of Dickinson Scholar. For more information, please [email protected]. Authors Molly Fraust, Stephanie Latini, Kathleen McWeeney, Kathryn M. Moyer, Laura Turner, Antonia Valdes- Dapena, Phillip Earenfight, and Trout Gallery This exhibition catalog is available at Dickinson Scholar:http://scholar.dickinson.edu/student_work/6 Visualizing a Mission Artifacts and Imagery of the Carlisle Indian School 1879–1918 January 30 – February 28, 2004 Curated by: Molly Fraust Stephanie Latini Kathleen McWeeney Kathryn M. Moyer Laura Turner Antonia Valdes-Dapena THE TROUT GALLERY – Dickinson College – Carlisle, Pennsylvania Acknowledgments This catalogue and corresponding exhibition at The Trout Gallery are the work of the members of the Art Historical Methods Seminar at Dickinson College. The annual seminar is designed to introduce students to the practice of preparing an exhibition and catalogue. Working with objects drawn from three separate collections, members of the seminar organized the material into major themes and prepared the following thematic essays and exhibition didactics. Their research and planning have been supported by a variety of gifted and dedicated college and museum professionals. The members of the seminar would like to join me in thanking members of the Cumberland County Historical Society in Carlisle for loaning a number of important works to the exhibition and for providing access to their invaluable resources related to the Carlisle Indian School. In particular, we would like to thank its director, Linda Witmer, and curators, Wayne E. Mott and Richard Tritt, for meeting our every request with professionalism and enthusiasm. We thank Lonna Malmsheimer from the Department of American Studies at Dickinson College and Barbara Landis from the Cumberland County Historical Society for sharing with us their extensive knowledge of the history of the Carlisle Indian School. At Dickinson College, we thank the staff at Waidner-Spahr Library, particularly Jane Schroeder and Jim Gerencser of Archives and Special Collections, for allowing The Trout Gallery to borrow its collec- tion of Carlisle Indian School photographs and for providing access to the library’s important primary and secondary resources. We also thank Christine Bombaro for making her research services available to mem- bers of the seminar. Special gratitude is due to Kim Nichols and Pat Pohlman in the office of publications for their skillful design of this catalogue and seeing it through production under the challenging deadlines posed by the project. We thank Pierce Bounds for providing photographs for the catalogue and Heidi Hormel for making this exhibition known to a wider audience. We also thank members of the Department of Art and Art History, particularly Sharon Hirsh and Melinda Schlitt, for creating and developing the concept for the methods seminar and for providing much appreciated support and assistance. Finally, thanks is due to members of The Trout Gallery who helped make this exhibition possible. Stephanie Keifer, the museum’s administrative assistant, copy edited the final catalogue and provided essen- tial organizational services. James Bowman prepared the objects and worked with members of the seminar to design and install the exhibition. Wendy Pires and Dottie Reed organized and promoted the various outreach programs to area schools and community centers. Sylvia Kauffman, Rosalie Lehman, and Sue Curzi assisted with the outreach programs and provided essential visitor services. This exhibition raises a number of challenging issues. We hope that we have been faithful to the lives and memories of those who played a part in the Carlisle Indian School during its thirty-nine year history. Members of the Art Historical Methods Seminar Phillip Earenfight, Seminar Adviser and Director, The Trout Gallery This catalogue is made possible through the generous funding of the Ruth Trout Endowment. ©2004 The Trout Gallery, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania. All rights reserved. Edited by Phillip Earenfight Table of Contents Introduction 4 Phillip Earenfight Essays — Richard Henry Pratt: 1840–1924 7 Seminar Members A Kiowa’s Odyssey:Etahdleuh Doanmoe’s Sketches from Fort Marion 9 Kathleen McWeeney John Nicholas Choate and the Production of Photography 14 at the Carlisle Indian School Laura Turner Visual Propaganda at the Carlisle Indian School 19 Molly Fraust Ceremonial Imagery in Plains Indian Artifacts from 24 The Trout Gallery’s Permanent Collection Stephanie Latini “Going Back to the Blanket:” New Outlooks on Art 30 Instruction at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School Kathryn M. Moyer Marketing the Exotic: Creating the Image of the “Real” Indian 35 Antonia Valdes-Dapena Exhibition Catalogue — Photographs Waidner-Spahr Library, Special Collections, Dickinson College 42 Cumberland County Historical Society 54 Artifacts The Trout Gallery 60 Cumberland County Historical Society 70 Introduction Phillip Earenfight, Seminar Adviser/Director, The Trout Gallery Visualizing a Mission: Artifacts and Imagery of the Carlisle Indian upon their arrival and again, several months after, as a way to School, 1879-1918examines artifacts associated with the illustrate the efficacy of their civilizing mission. Pratt and his nation’s first boarding school for Native Americans. The arti- students remained at Hampton until 1879, when the govern- facts illustrate various educational, cultural, and visual facets of ment, further encouraged by his efforts, granted him permis- the Carlisle Indian School and how the institution served to sion to create an Indian school at the military barracks in “civilize” Native Americans as part of a larger process of govern- Carlisle, Pennsylvania.8At Carlisle, Pratt refined and amplified ment directed cultural assimilation.1 many of the ideas that he introduced earlier at Fort Marion and The history of Indian boarding schools, and the Carlisle the Hampton Institute. As at Hampton, Pratt had “before” and Indian School in particular, began in the early 1870s when “after” photographs made of countless students, which he used major combat in the Indian Wars had ended and the United to promote his cause and gain political and financial support States Army had started to direct tribes onto reservations.2 for the school.9He also introduced the Outing System, a fea- However, the reservation system soon proved to be a failure and ture of the Fort Marion experience, which arranged employ- many felt that the Indian population would have to assimilate ment opportunities for advanced students at various businesses, into American society or face extinction.3After much consider- farms, and industries in the surrounding communities, towns, ation, federal policymakers concluded that if the native popula- and in some cases, distant metropolitan centers. The program tions were shown the way of “civilization,” they would be pre- was the final step of the school’s educational experience, which pared to take their place in American society. This conclusion aimed, as Pratt noted, “[t]o civilize the Indian, get him into civ- rested on the assumption that an academic education would ilization. To keep him civilized, let him stay.”10 elevate one from a primitive to a more civilized state.4 Pratt had his successes and his failures, supporters and crit- Policy became practice at the Carlisle Indian School, which ics. However, his repeated and sharp attacks on the Indian had its origins in the events following bloody skirmishes near Bureau in Washington as well as his unyielding approach to Fort Sill, in what is now Oklahoma. In the aftermath, seventy- Indian education, led to his dismissal in 1904. After Pratt’s two warriors were taken prisoner and moved temporarily to departure, poor administration led the Carlisle Indian School Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. They were met by Lt. Richard into a period of institutional decline.11Despite the school’s Henry Pratt, who transported them by train to St. Augustine, nationally recognized football team of 1912, with players such Florida to be detained at Fort Marion. Not without incident as Jim Thorpe, the school’s future was in jeopardy. Ultimately, and death, the surviving captives arrived at the fort on May 21, pressure from the Indian Bureau, declining enrollment, and the 1875 (fig. 1; cat. 50a).5Through a series of drastic procedures, outbreak of WWI brought an end to the school. In 1918, on Pratt converted Fort Marion into a military-style school. He the pretext that the military needed a medical facility for sol- stripped all vestiges of the students’ native culture, including diers returning from war in Europe, the government returned their clothes, hairstyles, and languages, and issued military uni- the Carlisle Barracks to military use. Today, the site is home to forms, showed them how to march, and instructed them in the United States Army War College. English and the Christian faith.6Pratt tore them down culturally Over the course of its thirty-nine year history, the Carlisle and then rebuilt them according to Western models. After three Indian School enrolled more than eight-thousand students and years of work, the transformation of “blanket Indians” into produced a large body of records and artifacts, much of it properly dressed, “civilized” students convinced the government visual.12Photographs, student art, campus publications, and to release the captives. native clothing document the institution and its people from its Encouraged by this early success, Pratt continued his mis- origins through its final days. In this catalogue and correspon- sion in 1878 by introducing Native American students, some ding exhibition, members of the Art Historical Methods of them from Fort Marion, to the Hampton Normal and Seminar at Dickinson College bring to light and analyze a body Industrial Institute (later Hampton College) in Virginia. of largely unpublished material, most of it drawn from the Founded in 1868 and run by Samuel Chapman Armstrong, the Dickinson College collections with additional works borrowed Institute was established as a school for recently-freed black from the Cumberland County Historical Society. Working with slaves.7Working together at Hampton, Pratt and Armstrong these artifacts, each of the seminar members identified specific began taking photographs of the Indian students immediately topics associated with the Carlisle Indian School for focused 4 Figure 1. Photographer unknown, Indian Prisoners Shortly After Their Arrival at Fort Marion, St. Augustine, Florida,1875, vintage gelatin silver print, The Trout Gallery, Dickinson College, 190.7.11.1 (cat. 50a). research. Their results are published in the subsequent essays largest body of visual imagery associated with the school— and presented in the exhibition for The Trout Gallery, at photographs. Laura Turner’s work concentrates on J. N. Choate, Dickinson College. the principal photographer of the Indian School during the Visualizing a Mission: Artifacts and Imagery of the Carlisle Pratt years. Her study considers the various types of photo- Indian School, 1879-1918opens with a biographical sketch of graphs produced by Choate, including the cabinet, boudoir, Richard Pratt, collectively written by the members of the meth- and stereoscopic cards which feature portraits of students, visit- ods seminar, which provides an introduction to many of the ing chiefs, campus activities, and views of the grounds. Molly issues raised in the subsequent studies. Six essays, one by each Fraust considers Pratt’s use of photographs as a means to pro- seminar member, follow, beginning with Kathleen McWeeney’s mote the school and its civilizing mission. By carefully examin- study of A Kiowa’s Odyssey.She examines this important album ing the “before” and “after” photographs of the students, Fraust of ledger drawings, which documents the experiences of illustrates how Pratt and Choate orchestrated the portrait set- Etahdleuh Doanmoe while he was at Fort Marion. Her study tings and the sitters in order to heighten the contrast between reconstructs the album and its association with Richard Pratt their “savage” and “civilized” state and emphasize the efficacy of and his son Mason. The two essays that follow consider the Pratt’s educational methods. 5 Stephanie Latini’s work examines a series of Plains Indians examines how, after the end of the Indian Wars, the image of artifacts, including two painted drums, a painted shield, and the Indian became a commodity to be sold and commercial- three painted cloths, focusing on the iconography and style of ized. By analyzing artifacts such as the cabinet card photographs these works. They represent a native tradition that, under Pratt, of students, Valdes-Dapena illustrates how their images were was not permitted at the Carlisle Indian School. Kathryn purchased and collected as specimens of the exotic. Moyer further addresses the issue of native art in her essay on Together the six essays provide insight into the Carlisle Angel De Cora, the school’s art instructor during the post-Pratt Indian School and how the surviving photographs and artifacts years. Moyer shows how De Cora, a Winnebago Indian, insisted open a view into the complex and controversial topic of the that students be introduced to the arts practiced by their ances- Indian boarding school experience in America. It is hoped tors, thereby breaking with previous requirements that all that their findings help us to better understand artifacts that aspects of traditional life be excluded from the school’s curricu- visualize the mission. lum. In the catalogue’s final essay, Antonia Valdes-Dapena 1 The bibliography on the principal issues noted in this introduction is extensive. Only 7 Edith Armstrong Talbot, Samuel Chapman Armstrong: A Biographical Study(New York: essential references are provided here. Henry E. Fritz, The Movement for Indian Doubleday, Page, and Company, 1964); James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks Assimilation, 1860-1882(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1963); in the South, 1860-1935(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), Frederick E. Hoxie, A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880- chap. 2; Robert Francis Engs, Freedom’s First Generation: Black Hampton, Virginia, 1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984). 1861-1890 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), chap. 8; David Wallace Adams, “Education in Hues: Red and Black at Hampton Institute, 1878- 2 David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction. American Indians and the Boarding 1893,” South Atlantic Quarterly76 (Spring 1977): 159-176; Donal Fred Lindsey, School Experience(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995). “Indian Education at Hampton Institute, 1877-1923” (Ph.D. diss., Kent State University, 1989). 3 Robert A. Trennert, Jr., Alternative to Extinction: Federal Indian Policy and the Beginnings of the Reservation System, 1846-1851(Philadelphia: Temple University 8 Perry Lee Walker-McNeil, “The Carlisle Indian School: A Study of Acculturation” Press, 1975). (Ph.D. diss., American University, 1979); Adams, Education for Extinction,48-55; Linda F. Witmer, The Indian Industrial School, Carlisle, Pennsylvania 1879-1918,3rd 4 Roy Harvey Pearce, The Savages of America: A Study of the Indian and the Idea of ed. (Carlisle, Penn.: Cumberland County Historical Society, 2002). Civilization,rev. ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965), chaps. 3-4. 9 In a letter to Pratt, Armstrong states, “We wish a variety of photographs of the 5 Adams, Education for Extinction, 36-39; Richard Henry Pratt, Battlefield and Indians. Be sure and have them bring their wild barbarous things. This will show Classroom: Four Decades with the American Indian, 1867-1904,Robert M. Utley, ed. whence we started.” Adams, Education for Extinction,47. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964); Pratt, “American Indians: Chained and Unchained: Being an Account of How the Carlisle Indian School was Born and Grew 10 Adams, Education for Extinction,55; Pratt, Battlefield and Classroom,283. in the First 25 Years,” Red Man(June 1914): 395-398; Pamela Holco Oestreicher, “On the White Man’s Road? Acculturation and the Fort Marion Southern Plains 11 Adams, Education for Extinction,321-326; Witmer, The Indian Industrial School, Prisoners” (Ph.D. diss., Michigan State University, 1981); Louis Morton, “How the 59-90. Indians Came to Carlisle,” Pennsylvania History29 (January 1962): 53-63. 12 For a list of students see Witmer, The Indian Industrial School,123-148. 6 Adams, Education for Extinction,39-41. 6 Richard Henry Pratt: 1840–1924 Seminar Members The history of the Carlisle Indian School is inexorably bound to its founder, Richard Henry Pratt (fig. 2; cat. 30), whose attitude toward Native Americans shaped virtually every dimension of it. In order to better understand the Carlisle Indian School, it is necessary to consider aspects of Pratt’s life and how his experi- ences influenced his regard for Indians and their future.1 A primary force in Richard Henry Pratt’s life was the mili- tary. It shaped his life and provided him with the model for reshaping the lives of the Native Americans. Indeed, the mile- posts in his life are all directly associated with military appoint- ments, which put him into direct contact with Native Americans. In 1861, he enlisted in a volunteer regiment during the Civil War. Six years later, he was assigned to Fort Gibson, Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) where he led a cavalry unit composed largely of recently-freed slaves and Indian scouts. In 1875, Lt. Pratt transported captured Indian warriors from Fort Sill, Indian Territory, to Fort Marion, St. Augustine, Florida. This assignment proved fateful, as he transformed a routine detainment detail into a radical educational and social experi- ment. Three years and a promotion later, Ct. Pratt’s record at Fort Marion led him to the Hampton Normal Agricultural Institute in Virginia, where he continued to refine his approach to “civilizing” Native Americans. In 1879, he persuaded the Department of the Interior and War Department to allow him to establish an Indian school in Carlisle. His assignment to the Carlisle Indian School was to last twenty-five years. Pratt was promoted to Brigadier General shortly before his forced retire- ment in 1904. The military provided Pratt with various perspectives of Figure 2. J. N. Choate, Cap’t. Pratt, Superintendent of Indian School, the Native Americans, which contributed to his evolving atti- n.d., albumen print mounted on card, Waidner-Spahr Library, tude toward them. Depending upon the context, they were Special Collections, Dickinson College, Carlisle Indian School, enemy warriors, valuable scouts, unfortunate victims, skilled PC 2002.2, Folder 1 (cat. 30). interpreters, and trusted guides. Such direct and varied contact with the Indians mixed with prevailing stereotypes. As Pratt once noted: “…talking with the Indians, I learned that most develop,become equal, and able to compete as citizens in all had received English education in home schools conducted by opportunities of our American life.”3 their tribal government. Their intelligence, civilization and The military also provided Pratt with the model on which to common sense was a revelation, because I had concluded base his educational institutions. Pratt operated Fort Marion and that as an army officer I was there to deal with atrocious the Carlisle Indian School like a military unit, “with discipline, aborigines.”2He commented further on how well some of the crystal clear instructions and total inflexibility.”4Despite objec- Indians had served the army and how poorly they were treated tions from several students, their hair was cut, and the boys were in return: “Indian scouts, who were enlisted to perform the very issued military uniforms and the girls were given proper dresses. highest functions of citizens…were imprisoned on reservations The students were taught to practice marching and drilling. Each throughout the country and were thus barred from these guar- child was to select their new Anglo name. Students were forced anteed opportunities which they only needed in order to to abandon their native language and began English lessons as 7