Arthritis CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Boca Raton London New York PAT H O P H Y S I O L O G Y, P R E V E N T I O N , A N D T H E R A P E U T I C S Arthritis E D I T E D B Y Debasis Bagchi, Hiroyoshi Moriyama, and Siba P. Raychaudhuri CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4398-1686-8 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid- ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. 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CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com To my best friend Sanjib Sengupta —Debasis Bagchi To my beloved mother, wife, daughter, and son —Hiroyoshi Moriyama To my beloved mother Bilwabasani Roychowdhury and to my father Durga Pada Roychowdhury —Siba P. Raychaudhuri vii Contents Preface............................................................................................................................................ xiii Editors ..............................................................................................................................................xv Contributors ...................................................................................................................................xvii I Overview and Pathophysiology SECTION 1 Chapter An Overview on Rheumatologic Disorders .................................................................3 S. Kumar and Rajiva Gupta 2 Chapter Pathogenesis of Osteoarthritis ....................................................................................23 Allen P. Anandarajah 3 Chapter Biomarkers in Osteoarthritis ......................................................................................39 Muneaki Ishijima, Hisashi Kurosawa, Haruka Kaneko, and Kazuo Kaneko 4 Chapter Rheumatoid Arthritis: Disease Pathophysiology .......................................................55 Ankit Saxena, Smriti K. Raychaudhuri, and Siba P. Raychaudhuri 5 Chapter Osteoclasts and Interleukin-17-Producing Helper T Cells in Rheumatoid Arthritis ......................................................................................................................75 Kazuo Okamoto and Hiroshi Takayanagi 6 Chapter WNT/β-Catenin Signaling Modulating Osteoarthritis ............................................. 91 Maripat Corr 7 Chapter Psoriatic Arthritis: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Quality of Life ..................... 103 Arathi R. Setty II Consequences SECTION 8 Chapter Arthritis, Obesity, Increased Cardiovascular Risk, and Disability .......................... 115 Shampa Chatterjee viii Contents III Antiarthritic Drugs SECTION 9 Chapter An Overview: Use of Traditional Antiarthritic Drugs and Update on Drug Development .............................................................................................................125 Gabriela Schmajuk and Michael G. Lyon 10 Chapter Nonsteroidal Anti-Infl ammatory Drugs ................................................................... 139 Anand Lal and Seeta Sharma 11 Chapter Biologics: Target-Specifi c Treatment of Systemic and Cutaneous Autoimmune Diseases .............................................................................................. 147 Siba P. Raychaudhuri and Smriti K. Raychaudhuri 12 Chapter Topical Applications for Pain and Arthritic Diseases .............................................. 165 Norifumi Tanida, Kotaro Maekawa, and Masaru Nakanishi 13 Chapter Hyaluronic Acid and Arthritis: A Review ................................................................ 183 Michele Abate 14 Chapter Hyaluronan for the Treatment of Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis ............199 Toshiaki Nakano and Yasufumi Takahashi IV Natural Therapeutic Interventions SECTION 15 Chapter Immunomodulatory Activities of Japanese Traditional Medicines in Rheumatoid Arthritis ............................................................................................... 219 Toshiaki Kogure 16 Chapter An Overview on Natural Therapeutic Interventions ................................................ 231 Stanley Naguwa 17 Chapter Potential Health Benefi ts from Nutrition and Dietary Supplements in the Prevention of Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis ...........................................237 Cathy Creger Rosenbaum 18 Chapter Antiarthritic Potential of Glucosamine and Chondroitin: An Overview .................245 Michael W. Orth and Pooi-See Chan 19 Chapter An Overview on N-Acetylglucosamine and Arthritis ..............................................255 Daiki Kubomura, Uzuka Naoaki, and Yoshiharu Matahira Contents ix 20 Chapter Hexosamine Flux and the Effi cacy and Safety of Glucosamine in the Treatment of Osteoarthritis ...................................................................................... 261 Akhtar Afshan Ali, William Salminen, and Julian E. Leakey 21 Chapter Safety and Effi cacy of a Unique Undenatured Type II Collagen in the Treatment of Arthritis ..............................................................................................283 Siba P. Raychaudhuri, Ramesh C. Gupta, Hiroyoshi Moriyama, Manashi Bagchi, Francis C. Lau, and Debasis Bagchi 22 Chapter Targeting Infl ammatory Pathways by Nutraceuticals for Prevention and Treatment of Arthritis ..............................................................................................295 Bokyung Sung, Gautam Sethi, Kwang Seok Ahn, Manoj K. Pandey, Ajaikumar B. Kunnumakkara, and Bharat B. Aggarwal 23 Chapter Boswellia serrata for Arthritis Relief: A Journey from Frankincense to Afl apin and 5-Loxin ..............................................................................................................325 Alluri Venkata Krishnaraju, Krishanu Sengupta, Siba P. Raychaudhuri, and Golakoti Trimurtulu 24 Chapter Utilization of Marine Products in the Treatment and Prevention of Osteoarthritis ............................................................................................................ 341 Tadakazu Tamai, Ayako Honmura, Hisashi Yoshioka, Tatsuya Konishi, Shisei Kuninaga, Hiroshi Oda, Akinori Sakamoto, and Tsuyoshi Okada 25 Chapter Benefi ts of Fish Oil for Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Review .......................................349 Christine Dawczynski and Gerhard Jahreis 26 Chapter Potential Health Benefi ts of n-3 and -6 Fatty Acids in Selected Plant Seed Oils in Rheumatoid Arthritis ...........................................................................................385 Hiroyuki Takeuchi, Hiroyoshi Moriyama, Debasis Bagchi, and Siba P. Raychaudhuri 27 Chapter Antiarthritic Potential of Bromelain from Ananas comosus and Its Combination .............................................................................................................403 Dilip Ghosh 28 Chapter Anti-Infl ammatory Properties of Zingiber offi cinale var. Rubra (Red Ginger Extract) .....................................................................................................................409 Hiroshi Shimoda 29 Chapter Benefi ts of Radix Tripterygium wilfordii for Rheumatoid Arthritis ........................ 419 Xiaojuan He, Shaohua Xu, Miao Jiang, Na Lin, and Aiping Lu x Contents 30 Chapter Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA): A Review of Its Preclinical Use in the Management of Osteoarthritis.................................................................................. 433 Kai Huang, Hai-li-Cai, Chun Zhang, Xiao-wen Zhang, Li-dong Wu, Li-feng Shen, and Qiao-feng Guo 31 Chapter Antiarthritic Potential of Green-Lipped Mussel and Other Marine-Based Nutraceuticals ...........................................................................................................443 Wendy Pearson and Michael I. Lindinger 32 Chapter Antioxidant, Anti-Infl ammatory, and Anticatabolic Potential of Rosmarinic Acid and High-Rosmarinic Acid Mint (Mentha Spicata) in Osteoarthritis............. 451 Wendy Pearson and Michael I. Lindinger 33 Chapter Potential Health Benefi ts of Orally Administered Hyaluronan in Alleviating Knee Joint Pain ........................................................................................................463 Tomoyuki Kanemitsu and Akira Asari 34 Chapter Pycnogenol—A Nutraceutical for Osteoarthritis ..................................................... 473 Om P. Gulati V Orthopedic Approach SECTION 35 Chapter Total Knee Arthroplasty for Osteoarthritis ..............................................................493 Shuichi Matsuda, Hiromasa Miura, and Yukihide Iwamoto VI Nonpharmacologic Interventions SECTION 36 Chapter Physical Exercise for Osteoarthritis of the Knee: Main Modality of Treatment and Possible Use for Prevention ...............................................................................503 Hisashi Kurosawa 37 Chapter Acupuncture for the Treatment of Arthritis ............................................................. 519 Hi-Joon Park and Hyangsook Lee 38 Chapter Rehabilitative Strategies for Arthritis: Physical, Agents, Exercise, and Prosthesis Therapies ..........................................................................................543 Nobuyuki Kawate, Mitsumasa Yoda, Naomi Yoshioka, and Masazumi Mizuma 39 Chapter Rehabilitation for Arthritis: Daily Life Guidelines .................................................. 553 Fumihito Kasai and Masazumi Mizuma Contents xi VII Commentary SECTION 40 Chapter Arthritis, Aging Society, Exercise, Nutrition, and Other Precautionary Measures................................................................................................................... 559 Siba P. Raychaudhuri, Hiroyoshi Moriyama, and Debasis Bagchi Index ..............................................................................................................................................563 xiii Preface Medical science is advancing at a galloping pace. There is explosion of knowledge and information in all disciplines of medicine. In this book, we have covered cutting-edge information on arthritic diseases and their treatment. Arthritis is a debilitating disease that causes pain, infl ammation, and loss of movement of the joints. The term arthritis literally means joint infl ammation (arth = joint, ritis = infl ammation). People of all ages, including children and young adults, can develop arthritis. Infl ammation and infl ammatory responses are key factors for causing swelling, redness, pain, and loss of movement in the affected areas. Arthritis is usually chronic and refers to more than 100 dif- ferent kinds of arthritis that can affect the different parts of the body. It is important to know that in addition to the joints, some forms of arthritis are associated with diseases of other tissues and organs in the body. Also, arthritis has been shown to have direct correlations with obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular dysfunctions. We designed this book Arthritis: Pathophysiology, Prevention, and Therapeutics with a focused approach to cover the mechanistic aspects to understand the disease pathophysiology and treatment opportunities. One of the major goals and objectives of this book is to help readers understand the intricate aspects of arthritis and infl ammatory responses, its consequences, the economic burden, and its huge impact on human society. The book starts with a section on pathophysiology, which consists of seven chapters providing insight of rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and psoriatic arthritis. Because arthritis has a very close relationship with other debilitating diseases including obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular dysfunctions as well as with disability, we have dedicated the second section to consequences for providing a better perception of the importance of such diseases. The third section focuses on antiarthritic drugs. This section starts with an overview and update on antiarthritic drug development by Dr. Micheal G. Lyon from Stanford University School of Medicine, which is followed by a chapter on nonsteroidal anti-infl ammatory drugs. The third chap- ter highlights the diverse biologics involved in arthritic diseases. The fourth chapter discusses the topical applications for pain and arthritic diseases. The last two chapters deliver an overview on hyaluronic acid and hyaluronan in osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. The fourth section delivers an array of natural therapeutic interventions in osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. This section gives an overview of glucosamine and chondroitin salts, hyal- uronic acid, methylsulfonylmethane, S-adenosyl-l-methionine, undenatured type II collagen, curcumin, red pepper, capsaicin, Boswellia serrata, shark cartilage, omega-3 fatty acids, fi sh oil, plant-derived oils, avocado, bromelain, red ginger, Tripterygium wilffordii, dehydroepiandroster- one, green lipid mussel, abalone, rosmarinic acid mint, and pycnogenol. The fi fth section discusses orthopedic approach. This small section discusses the effect of total knee arthroplasty for osteoarthritis. The sixth section discusses nonpharmacological interventions. The fi rst chapter in this section discusses the infl uence of physical exercise in arthritis. This section also has an outstanding dis- cussion on acupuncture, which is now globally used, and nonpharmacological intervention by phys- ical exercise and rehabilitative strategy. Finally, the seventh section is a commentary discussing the correlation between arthritis and the aging society and how exercise, nutrition, and preventative strategies can help the world and man- kind in promoting human health.