ART EVERYTHING YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT THE GREATEST ARTISTS AND THEIR WORKS Susie Hodge New York • London © 2010, 2013 by Susie Hodge All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher, except by reviewers, who may quote brief passages in a review. Scanning, uploading, and electronic distribution of this book or the facilitation of the same without the permission of the publisher is prohibited. Please purchase only authorized electronic editions, and do not participate in or encourage electronic piracy of copyrighted materials. Your support of the author’s rights is appreciated. Any member of educational institutions wishing to photocopy part or all of the work for classroom use or anthology should send inquiries to Permissions c/o Quercus Publishing Inc., 31 West 57th Street, 6th Floor, New York, NY 10019, or to [email protected]. e-ISBN 978-1-62365997-4 Distributed in the United States and Canada by Random House Publisher Services c/o Random House, 1745 Broadway New York, NY 10019 www.quercus.com Contents INTRODUCTION Gothic to Early Renaissance c.1300–1500 CIMABUE • DUCCIO • GIOTTO • DONATELLO • FRA ANGELICO • VAN EYCK • UCCELLO • VAN DER WEYDEN • MASACCIO • DELLA FRANCESCA • BELLINI • MANTEGNA • BOTTICELLI • GHIRLANDAIO • BOSCH High Renaissance to Mannerism c.1500–1600 LEONARDO DA VINCI • DÜRER • MICHELANGELO • RAPHAEL • TITIAN • HOLBEIN • BRONZINO • TINTORETTO • BRUEGEL • VERONESE Baroque c.1600–1700 EL GRECO • CARAVAGGIO • RUBENS • GENTILESCHI • POUSSIN • VELÁZQUEZ • VAN DYCK • CLAUDE Dutch Realism c.1600–1700 REMBRANDT • STEENWYCK • DE HOOCH • VERMEER Rococo to Neoclassicism c.1700–1800 WATTEAU • CANALETTO • HOGARTH • CHARDIN • BOUCHER • REYNOLDS • GAINSBOROUGH • FRAGONARD • GOYA • DAVID Romanticism to Realism c.1800–1900 BLAKE • HOKUSAI • FRIEDRICH • TURNER • CONSTABLE • INGRES • GÉRICAULT • COROT • HIROSHIGE • DELACROIX • MILLET • COURBET • MOREAU • ROSSETTI Impressionism to Post-Impressionism c.1865–1910 MILLAIS • PISSARRO • MANET • DEGAS • WHISTLER • HOMER • CÉZANNE • MONET • RODIN • RENOIR • CASSATT • GAUGUIN • VAN GOGH • SEURAT • TOULOUSE-LAUTREC Modernism to Pop c.1900–1970s KLIMT • MUNCH • KANDINSKY • MATISSE • MONDRIAN • BRANCUSI • MALEVICH • KLEE • PICASSO • BRAQUE • MODIGLIANI • BECKMANN • RIVERA • DUCHAMP • O’KEEFFE • MIRÓ • MAGRITTE • GIACOMETTI • ROTHKO • DALÍ • KAHLO • POLLOCK • LICHTENSTEIN • WARHOL Galleries Glossary Credits Introduction Defining a “great” artist as opposed to a merely good one is always going to be subjective. But it is not just a matter of personal taste. Nor is it fashion—many artists have basked in the glory of their esteemed reputations during their lives, only to fade into obscurity after their deaths, and some artists are forgotten and rediscovered in later centuries. Which prompts the question: do all great artists withstand the test of time? There are no real rules. So, to select 100 great artists for this book, there needed to be some sort of criteria. However, artists before the Renaissance era were rarely named individually. In later centuries, different societies and technologies changed the purpose of art, which made the selection process even more complex. In the end, the 100 great artists—including painters, sculptors and printmakers from the 13th century to the 1960s—were chosen because they changed art, and their work had implications on subsequent artistic developments. Although many worthy artists have been omitted, those included are among the most exciting, outstanding and enduring. We can only imagine the shock or revelation that some art provoked as conventions of the day were confronted. Art changed drastically when artists no longer had to rely on the patronage of the state or the Church. In addition, events longer had to rely on the patronage of the state or the Church. In addition, events in history, such as wars and scientific discoveries, have also had a major impact on artistic expression. Although artistic influences and production should not be compartmentalized, in order to understand the evolution and reasons behind these developments and to explain connections in style or approach, the artists have been grouped chronologically into movements or eras. Once an artistic tradition has been established, it takes imagination, skill and courage to diversify from accepted customs. Most of the artists in this book have done that, standing out among their contemporaries, either at the time or in hindsight, revealing their insights and creative genius. The role of the artist as “genius” developed during the 14th century, with a status far beyond that of the skilled artisan or craftsman. The essential qualifications of “genius” were individuality and an art that released creative energy and allowed the artist freedom to challenge historical precedents. Although it is no longer relevant to evaluate great art in terms of skill in lifelike representation, great art has always been more concerned with perception or vision than accuracy of depiction. Every artist featured in this book broke new ground in some way, influencing, inspiring and setting new standards. Even though the art they produced is extremely diverse, the great artists all explore similar, universal themes— concern about the nature of human existence, the problem of mortality, and the social and moral issues inherent in our culture. Progressive art can assist people to learn not only about the objective forces at work in the only about the objective forces at work in the society in which they live, but also about the intensely social character of their interior lives. Ultimately, it can propel people toward social emancipation. SALVADOR DALÍ Gothic to Early Renaissance c.1300–1500 During the Medieval period (5th to 16th centuries), the greatest influence on European art was religion. The Church commissioned the majority of art and it was usually produced by monks. The illuminated manuscripts, simple wall paintings and carvings they produced were characterized by the flat, decorative style of the Byzantine Empire. Drawing on tradition From 1150 to about 1500, what became known later as Gothic Art flourished in Europe. The word was originally a term of abuse—it described the elaborate architectural styles, ornate altarpieces, embellished paintings, sculpture, stained glass, illuminated manuscripts and tapestries that focused on Christian beliefs and were based on the decorative Byzantine style. During that time, even religious art began to be produced by lay artists, who learned to follow the accepted conventions of the Byzantine style. Realism was not valued and specific aspects of Christianity were traditionally portrayed. Gradually, however, shifts in theological beliefs and a more human-focused, analytical and intellectual approach to life emerged. As attention moved from the heavens and saints to what was happening on Earth, art began to transform. The rebirth Artists worked in the guild system, whereby young artists trained as apprentices in the workshops of masters, learning all the necessary skills and practices. Once fully trained, they became masters with workshops of their own. For years, these rules were rigid, but as theological and humanist ideas spread, some artists moved away from the decorative, flat style of the Byzantine tradition, instead reflecting on the more realistic styles of art from ancient Greece and Rome. For reflecting on the more realistic styles of art from ancient Greece and Rome. For the first time since the classical world, there was a rebirth of interest, not just in art, but also in science, architecture, literature, music and invention. The new ideas slowly spread from Italy to the rest of Europe and centuries later, it became known as the Renaissance or “rebirth.” In art, classical artistic principles including harmonious proportion, natural postures and expressions were followed. The main beliefs of the Renaissance were that through studying the learnings and discoveries of the ancient Greeks and Romans, artistic greatness, wisdom and enlightenment would be attained. Figures became more lifelike, depth and volume was depicted and Christianity was portrayed from a more human viewpoint. Emphasis was put on feelings, including vulnerability and suffering, in stories such as the Assumption of Mary, the Virgin and Child, Pietà, and Christ being deposed from the Cross. Whereas earlier artists simply copied from previous works, artists of the Renaissance used real people as models. Three of the most significant artists of the period were Cimabue, Duccio and Giotto, who had been trained in the Byzantine tradition but became intent on representing three dimensions in order to illustrate convincing space and structure. Gradually other artists, such as Donatello, Masaccio and Mantegna, produced art that gives even more of an illusion of reality. The new ideas spread across Italy in several different centers of art, initially in Florence and then in Siena, Rome, Venice, Milan, Urbino and across the rest of Europe. In northern Europe, where the influence of Celtic rather than Byzantine art had dominated, the Renaissance arrived later. There, cultural centers had developed around trade, and merchants filled their homes with paintings to display their prosperity. Artists from the Low Countries and Germany, such as van Eyck, van der Weyden and Grünewald, produced meticulous portraits and religious scenes in oil paints, incorporating new ideals of realism, combined with subtle and detailed religious references and symbols. History and mythology Most Renaissance art was still commissioned by the Church, with the greatest artists decorating churches and chapels for Popes and the aristocracy. Other patrons requested portraits, landscapes, scenes of Roman history and mythology. In this way, artists had the excuse to depict nudes, to show dynamism, detail and opulence and to represent nature accurately to surprise and impress viewers. As these Renaissance artists achieved recognition and rose above the status of craftsmen and artisans, they began to compete with each other, which spurred them on to even greater results.