Title Pages Armenia and Azerbaijan: Anatomy of a Rivalry Laurence Broers Print publication date: 2019 Print ISBN-13: 9781474450522 Published to Edinburgh Scholarship Online: May 2020 DOI: 10.3366/edinburgh/9781474450522.001.0001 Title Pages Laurence Broers (p.i) Armenia and Azerbaijan (p.iii) Armenia and Azerbaijan (p.iv) Edinburgh University Press is one of the leading university presses in the UK. We publish academic books and journals in our selected subject areas across the humanities and social sciences, combining cutting-edge scholarship with high editorial and production values to produce academic works of lasting importance. For more information visit our website: edinburghuniversitypress.com © Laurence Broers, 2019 Edinburgh University Press Ltd The Tun – Holyrood Road, 12(2f) Jackson’s Entry, Edinburgh EH8 8PJ Typeset in 11/14 Sabon by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire and printed and bound in Great Britain. A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 1 4744 5052 2 (hardback) ISBN 978 1 4744 5054 6 (webready PDF) ISBN 978 1 4744 5055 3 (epub) The right of Laurence Broers to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, and the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003 (SI No. 2498). Page 1 of 2 PRINTED FROM EDINBURGH SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.edinburgh.universitypressscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Edinburgh University Press, 2020. All Rights Reserved. An individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a monograph in ESO for personal use. Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 30 September 2020 Title Pages Access brought to you by: Page 2 of 2 PRINTED FROM EDINBURGH SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.edinburgh.universitypressscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Edinburgh University Press, 2020. All Rights Reserved. An individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a monograph in ESO for personal use. Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 30 September 2020 Epigraph Armenia and Azerbaijan: Anatomy of a Rivalry Laurence Broers Print publication date: 2019 Print ISBN-13: 9781474450522 Published to Edinburgh Scholarship Online: May 2020 DOI: 10.3366/edinburgh/9781474450522.001.0001 Epigraph Laurence Broers (p.ii) If the Homeland is small, one dreams it large. Rubén Darío, Retorno Access brought to you by: Page 1 of 1 PRINTED FROM EDINBURGH SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.edinburgh.universitypressscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Edinburgh University Press, 2020. All Rights Reserved. An individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a monograph in ESO for personal use. Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 30 September 2020 Acknowledgements Armenia and Azerbaijan: Anatomy of a Rivalry Laurence Broers Print publication date: 2019 Print ISBN-13: 9781474450522 Published to Edinburgh Scholarship Online: May 2020 DOI: 10.3366/edinburgh/9781474450522.001.0001 (p.vi) Acknowledgements Laurence Broers For authors writing on conflict acknowledgements are always fraught. Many of the dozens of people who helped me on the path to this book may disagree vehemently with the argument herein. I can only emphasise its provisional and contestable nature, and underline that responsibility for its flaws remains mine alone. This book came out of my work at Conciliation Resources (CR), a London-based peacebuilding organisation (www.c-r.org). I am greatly indebted to the vision and counsel of CR’s executive director, Jonathan Cohen, conversations with whom led to the germination of this project. I am grateful to Andy Carl, Rachel Clogg, Rhona Miller, Mira Sovakar and Juliet Williams for their moral support. It has also been a privilege to work with Marc Behrendt, Jenny Norton and Siegfried Woeber, to whom I give thanks. In surviving to book stage, the project owes a great deal to the inspiration, advice and support at critical junctures of the following individuals: Bhavna Dave, Thomas de Waal, Salpi Ghazarian, Tabib Huseynov and Gerard Toal. I am deeply grateful to each of them. In Armenia, I would like to thank Konstantin Geodakyan, Natalie and Hakop Harutyunyan, Levon Kalantar, and Harutyun Mansuryan of the Media Initiatives Center, with special thanks to Nune Sargsyan for advice, perspective and hospitality. For a generous supply of analytical insight and for sharing office space I am grateful to Richard Giragosian. I am likewise greatly indebted to the Caucasus Institute and the insights of its director Alexander Iskandaryan and former deputy director Sergey Minasyan. My thanks also go to Tatul Hakobyan of Civilitas for sharing his encyclopaedic knowledge. I would also like to thank the (p.vii) following individuals who helped me in myriad ways while in the field in Armenia: Lara Aharonyan, Jonathan Aves, Artak Ayunts, Laura Baghdasarian, Judith Farnworth, Mark Grigorian, Nina Iskandaryan, Edgar Khachatrian, Hranush Kharatyan, Kathy Leach, Charles Lonsdale, Roubina Margossian, Ashot Melyan, Tigran Mkrtchyan, Oksana Musaelyan, Artur Sakunts, Alex Sardar, David Shahnazaryan, Araik Shirinyan, Timothy Straight, Naira Sultanyan, Gevorg Ter-Gabrielyan and Maria Titizian. (In spelling Armenian surnames I have tried to be consistent with personal preferences, common usage or original sources, hence I use both -ian and -yan.) Page 1 of 3 PRINTED FROM EDINBURGH SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.edinburgh.universitypressscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Edinburgh University Press, 2020. All Rights Reserved. An individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a monograph in ESO for personal use. Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 30 September 2020 Acknowledgements In Azerbaijan, I give special thanks to Avaz Hasanov and Mehriban Mammadova for sharing wisdom and hospitality. I am greatly indebted to Arif Yunusov and Leyla Yunus for their generosity in sharing their knowledge, intellect and insight over many years. My thanks go too to Ilham Safarov and his colleagues: Myrsadyg Agayev, Naila Babayeva, Rahman Badalov, Aliya Haqverdi, Toghrul Jufarli, Shahin Rzayev and Ayaz Salayev. I would also like to thank the following individuals for assistance in the field in Azerbaijan: Arzu Abdullayeva, Shamkhal Abilov, Leila Alieva, Sevinc Aliyeva, Zardusht Alizade, Bakhtiyar Aslanov, Akram Aylisli, Rauf Garagozov, Ilgar Gasimov, Maryam Haji-Ismayilova, Jamil Hasanli, Novella Jafaroglu-Appelbaum, Kerim Kerimli, Ceyhun Mahmudlu, Kamal Makili-Aliyev, Polad Mammadov, Xamis Masimov, Tofig Musayev, Eldar Namazov, Atakhan Pashayev, Gulshan Pashayeva, Akif Nagi Qazakh, and Irfan Siddiq. I am particularly grateful to Adalet Tahirzade for his kind permission to feature the cover of his 2003 book The Path to Liberation and Unity as an illustration, and to Turgut Gambar for helping me with translation. In Nagorny Karabakh I would like to thank Gegham Baghdasarian and his colleagues at the Stepanakert Press Club, with special thanks to Anahit Danielyan for hosting me in September 2014. I am very grateful to the following individuals for their unfailing assistance over many years: Svetlana Danielyan, Masis Mayilian, Karen Ohanjanian, Karine Ohanyan and Albert Voskanyan. I also thank Iosif and Karine Adamian, Armine Aleksanyan, Artak Beglaryan, Vera Grigorian, Naira (p.viii) Hayrumyan, Margarita Karamyan, Tigran Kyureghyan and Saro Saroyan. For conversations and exchanges that have enriched my thinking about the issues dealt with in this book I would like to thank the following individuals: Caner Alper, Karena Avedissian, Günther Bächler, Donnacha Ó Beacháin, Mehmet Binay, Carey Cavanaugh, Roxana Cristescu, Jacques Faure, Martha Freeman, Magdalena Frichova Grono, Phil Gamaghelyan, Arzu Geybulla, Sevil Huseynova, Sossie Kasbarian, Arsen Kharatyan, Sergey Markedonov, Cigdem Mater, Anna Matveeva, Marina Nagai, Murad Nasibbeyli, Craig Oliphant, Kevork Oskanian, Amanda Paul, Dennis Sammut, Arsène Saparov, Gwendolyn Sasse, Silvia Serrano, Anahit Shirinyan, Zaur Shiriyev, Jale Sultanli, Ronald Grigor Suny, Olesya Vartanyan, Cory Welt, Ulrike Ziemer, Mikayel Zolyan and Christoph Zürcher. I am greatly appreciative of the scholarly collaborations I have been fortunate to enjoy with Ceyhun Mahmudlu, Anna Ohanyan, Jean-François Ratelle, Mairbek Vatchagaev and Galina Yemelianova: thank you for broadening my horizons. I also thank all those in public office who facilitated research they had no reason to believe would support their positions on the conflict. I wish to acknowledge the openness to my enquiries of the Armenian and Azerbaijani embassies in London, and the Ministries of Foreign Affairs in both states. The representatives of the de facto Nagorno-Karabakh Republic in Stepanakert, and Robert Avetisyan of its representation in Washington, have been similarly helpful. Those who read and generously commented on draft chapters helped me to clarify my thinking. I am very grateful to Nina Caspersen, Thomas de Waal, Tabib Huseynov, Armine Ishkanian, Famil Ismayilov, Harrison King, Jo Laycock, David Lewis, Elene Melikishvili, Emil Sanamyan, Licínia Simão, Gerard Toal, Bettina Vaughan, Siegfried Woeber and Eliza Wright. At Edinburgh University Press I thank Jen Daly, Joannah Duncan, Sarah Foyle and Adela Rauchova for their enthusiasm for this project and support in seeing it to fruition. I am grateful to Glory Hall for designing the maps and Alfonso and María-Paola Rizo for advice on the epigraph. Lastly and most of all, I would like to (p.ix) express my profound gratitude to my parents Robert and Page 2 of 3 PRINTED FROM EDINBURGH SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.edinburgh.universitypressscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Edinburgh University Press, 2020. All Rights Reserved. An individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a monograph in ESO for personal use. Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 30 September 2020 Acknowledgements Patricia for their considerable forbearance and steadfast support of this and many other endeavours. I dedicate this book to the memory of my sister, Anita. Access brought to you by: Page 3 of 3 PRINTED FROM EDINBURGH SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.edinburgh.universitypressscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Edinburgh University Press, 2020. All Rights Reserved. An individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a monograph in ESO for personal use. Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 30 September 2020 Maps, Figures and Tables Armenia and Azerbaijan: Anatomy of a Rivalry Laurence Broers Print publication date: 2019 Print ISBN-13: 9781474450522 Published to Edinburgh Scholarship Online: May 2020 DOI: 10.3366/edinburgh/9781474450522.001.0001 (p.x) Maps, Figures and Tables Laurence Broers Maps 1 The South Caucasus xiv 2 Nagorny Karabakh xv Figures 2.1 Visualising ‘Greater Azerbaijan’: President Elchibey stares out from an expansive Azerbaijani homeland on the cover of this 2003 book, whose title reads The Path to Liberation and Unity 61 2.2 A 2015 wall calendar commemorating ‘Wilsonian Armenia’ 70 3.1 A and B Policing ‘augmented Armenia’: graffiti at bus stops in Yerevan, 2015 103 3.2 Visualising Azerbaijanism: poster board of Heydar Aliyev, Sheki, 2011 113 5.1 Armenia and Azerbaijan Freedom House Ratings, 1991–2018 156 5.2 World Bank Governance Indicators: Voice and Accountability in Armenia and Azerbaijan, 1996–2016 157 7.1 Russia’s pivotal deterrence between Armenia and Azerbaijan 246 8.1 Rejecting ‘compliant Armenia’: school classroom wall, Lachin, 2014 271 (p.xi) 9.1 Poster-board, Meghri, Armenia, 2015. The legend reads: ‘Armenians, Meghri is the door to your home!’ 290 Tables 2.1 Traditions and territorialisations in Azerbaijani geopolitical culture 78 2.2 Traditions and territorialisations in Armenian geopolitical culture 79 3.1 Territorial visions and conceptions of Nagorny Karabakh in post-Soviet Armenian geopolitical culture 91 3.2 Territorial visions and conceptions of Nagorny Karabakh in post-Soviet Azerbaijani geopolitical culture 105 4.1 General development indicators in early Soviet Armenia and Azerbaijan (%) 128 4.2 Armenian (ArmCP) and Azerbaijani (AzCP) Communist Party membership by nationality (%) in major census years 131 4.3 Azerbaijani population growth in regions of the ArmSSR, 1959–79 136 6.1 Armenian and Azerbaijani demographic indicators compared, 1990–2015 194 Page 1 of 2 PRINTED FROM EDINBURGH SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.edinburgh.universitypressscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Edinburgh University Press, 2020. All Rights Reserved. An individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a monograph in ESO for personal use. Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 30 September 2020 Maps, Figures and Tables 7.1 Schemas of Russian policy towards the Armenian– Azerbaijani rivalry 240 8.1 Domestic income, expenditure and interstate credits in the de facto Nagorno- Karabakh Republic, 2007–16 (in current US dollars) 259 8.2 Traditions and territorialisations of Nagorny Karabakh, 1991–present 270 9.1 Armenian–Azerbaijani peace proposals discussed by the Minsk Group, 1997–present 286 Access brought to you by: Page 2 of 2 PRINTED FROM EDINBURGH SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.edinburgh.universitypressscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Edinburgh University Press, 2020. All Rights Reserved. An individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a monograph in ESO for personal use. Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 30 September 2020 Terminology Armenia and Azerbaijan: Anatomy of a Rivalry Laurence Broers Print publication date: 2019 Print ISBN-13: 9781474450522 Published to Edinburgh Scholarship Online: May 2020 DOI: 10.3366/edinburgh/9781474450522.001.0001 (p.xii) Terminology Laurence Broers In my earlier work, I used the term ‘Nagorny Karabakh conflict’ because it avoided embroilment in the naming and numbering of the belligerents, and because it underscored that the conflict is, in essence, territorial. However, the space and scope of the conflict have never been limited to Nagorny Karabakh itself, and as I argue in this book, it is the interstate dimension that has become dominant since the 1994 ceasefire. In this work, I therefore refer to the Armenian– Azerbaijani conflict, while being aware that this term conflates distinct inter-communal, intra- state, and interstate layers. The terminology describing the territory at the heart of the conflict is confusingly diverse and politically fraught. I prefer Nagorny Karabakh as – from a Russian point of view – linguistically more correct, although it is more widely referred to as Nagorno-Karabakh. This is an adaptation into English from the Russian adjectival form Nagorno-Karabakhskaya Avtonomnaya Oblast’, literally meaning the ‘autonomous region of mountainous Karabakh’ and describing the Soviet- era autonomous region that existed from 1923 to 1991. Nagorny Karabakh denotes a smaller territory than a pre-twentieth-century understanding of Karabakh encompassing both highland and lowland areas. However, in order to avoid laborious repetition of the word ‘Nagorny’, I use the terms ‘Karabakh’ and ‘Nagorny Karabakh’ interchangeably. I use the ‘Nagorno-Karabakh’ form only when it is part of an official name or title, for example when referring to the unrecognised republic that exists in the area today, the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. This entity changed its name in 2017 to the Republic of Artsakh, evoking an ancient Armenian province, although both terms were and remain official. I retain the earlier term in this (p.xiii) book as the still more widely used name at the time of writing. I do not use the qualifiers ‘de facto’ or ‘unrecognised’ at every mention of the republic and its institutions, but underscore here that no United Nations member-state – including Armenia – recognises it. Since the ceasefire of 1994 place-names in and around Nagorny Karabakh have become intensely politicised, as Armenians and Azerbaijanis have developed rival topographies for the same space. Armenian and Azerbaijani maps today depict cartographies that are distinct in every way, from district boundaries to the names of settlements. Outsiders have few palatable options, other than to continue using the place-names in most popular use at the beginning of Page 1 of 2 PRINTED FROM EDINBURGH SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.edinburgh.universitypressscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Edinburgh University Press, 2020. All Rights Reserved. An individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a monograph in ESO for personal use. Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 30 September 2020 Terminology the conflict in 1988. I therefore refer to the capital of Nagorny Karabakh by its Armenian name, Stepanakert, and not its Azerbaijani variant, Khankendi. I refer to what was the territory’s second city by its Azerbaijani name, Shusha, and not its Armenian variant, Shushi. Place-name choices were not always so zero-sum. Before the conflict some settlements in Karabakh were widely known by two names, such as the village of Dashalty/ Karintak. Duality in place-naming can thus also be read as a local tradition reflecting distinct but compatible geographies. This is not the case, however, in the occupied territories within the de facto jurisdiction of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, where the effacing of what were Azerbaijani settlements has been ongoing for twenty-five years. Previously overwhelmingly Azerbaijani-populated towns, such as Lachin and Kelbajar, are now known to their settler inhabitants by Armenian names (Berdzor and Karvajar respectively). In this work I use the Azerbaijani nomenclature for these areas, and indicate at first usage their current Armenian equivalent in brackets. I acknowledge that this will be objectionable to more partisan readers, as either the imposition of a retrograde geography that no longer meaningfully exists, or the legitimation of an occupational regime. My intent is neither, but to juxtapose place-names that are currently experienced in complete isolation from each other. The imagined worlds of Lachin and Berdzor, for example, could not be further apart today, and this distance is set only to grow for the foreseeable future. Resolution of this conflict, however, requires that one day these worlds become more aware of one another, and eventually meet. Access brought to you by: Page 2 of 2 PRINTED FROM EDINBURGH SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.edinburgh.universitypressscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Edinburgh University Press, 2020. All Rights Reserved. An individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a monograph in ESO for personal use. Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 30 September 2020