60 Years of Chinese Misrule Arguing Cultural Genocide in Tibet 60 Years of Chinese Misrule Arguing Cultural Genocide in Tibet AreportbytheInternationalCampaignforTibet Washington,DC l Amsterdaml Berlinl Brusselsl London www.savetibet.org ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TheInternationalCampaignforTibet(ICT)report,“60YearsofChineseMisrule/ArguingCultural GenocideinTibet”isdrawninpartfroma2011drafttext,“Tibetocide,”writtenbytheDepartment ofInformationandInternationalRelations(DIIR)oftheCentralTibetanAdministration.Thefinal versionofthereportwasproducedbytheICTWashington,D.C.officewithanoutsidewriter, whobroughtacoherentsenseofnarrativetothisambitiousprojectandskillfullywovetogether themanycomplexissuesthatitseekstoaddress.TheICTstaffinAmsterdam,Berlin,Brussels, London,andinthefieldalsoprovidedessentialeditorialandsubstantivesupportthroughoutthe process.Inaddition,thisreportwasreviewedatvariousstagesbyinternationallegal,policyand Tibetexpertswhoprovidedinvaluableguidanceandsuggestionsthatimproveditimmeasurably. Finally,manyTibetans—includingICT’sownTibetanstaff—providedimportantinformationused inthisreport.ICTisespeciallygratefultoourexpertadvisorsandreviewers,andothersfortheir contributionstothisreport.ThanksalsotoBillWhitehead,whosediscerningeyemadepossiblea quickturnaroundindesignandpublication. Anyerrorsoromissionsinthisreportaresolelytheresponsibilityofitsauthors. Coverphoto:TibetanBuddhistmonkstandingatthedoorsofhismonasteryinBarkham(Chinese: Ma’erkang),TibetanareaofSichuanprovince.Heisflankedbypropagandaposters:onhisright, MaoZedong,DengXiaopingandJiangZemin;onhisleft,HuJintaosurroundedbyTibetanwomen standsinfrontofthePotalaPalace,Lhasa.Photocredit:GillesSabrie Stampimage:Thestampimageappearingthroughoutthereportwasusedina2011protestin Tibet.TheTibetanscriptinsidetheheartreads‘Tibet’andthescriptsurroundingtheheartreads ‘LongliveHisHolinesstheDalaiLama.’ FOREWORD Thisreport,“60yearsofChineseMisrule/ArguingCulturalGenocideinTibet,”isintendedto provideabase-lineunderstandingofTibetancultureandtheChinesepoliciesandpracticesthathave deliberatelysoughttocontrolanddestroyit.Assuch,thereportinvitesdiscussiononthecircum- stancesthatdefineculturalgenocideinTibet.TheInternationalCampaignforTibetparticularly welcomesacloserlookatissuesofevidenceandintentbygenocidescholars.Byreleasingthisreport inApril2012,duringInternationalGenocidePreventionMonth,wehopeitwillcontributeto internationaleffortstopreventandcombatgenocideinallitsmanifestations,andtotherealization ofaworldwherefundamentalhumanrightsandhumandignityareupheldbyallgovernmentsand effectivelyprotectedthroughinternationallegalinstruments. Whilewehopethisreportwillmakesuchacontribution,itsspecificpurposeistomakeapersua- sivecasethatthesituationinTibet—thepatternofoppressionthroughoutthe60yearsofChinese rule,uptothecurrentcrisis—requirestheinternationalcommunitytorespondinaqualitatively differentmannerthanithas.Wewelcomeaconstructiveexaminationoftheconceptsputforward inthisreportbyinternationallawandcountrystudiesexperts,humanrightsadvocates,policy makers,peopleswhoseculturalrightshavebeenabusedbythestateandotherswhohaveastake inunderstandingthekindofculturalandhumanrightsviolationsthathavecharacterizedthe situationinTibet. MaryBethMarkey President,InternationalCampaignforTibet April2,2012 NOTEONGEOGRAPHICALTERMS Tibetwastraditionallycomprisedofthreemainareas:Amdo(northeasternTibet),Kham(eastern Tibet)andU-Tsang(centralandwesternTibet).TheTibetAutonomousRegionwassetupby theChinesegovernmentin1965andcoverstheareaofTibetwestoftheDrichuorYangtzeRiver, including part of Kham. The rest of Amdo and Kham have been incorporated into Chinese provinces,andwhereTibetancommunitiesweresaidtohave‘compactinhabitancy’inthese provincestheyweredesignatedTibetanautonomousprefecturesandcounties.Asaresultmostof QinghaiandpartsofGansu,SichuanandYunnanprovincesareacknowledgedbytheChinese governmenttobe‘Tibetan.’ICTusestheterm‘Tibet’torefertoallTibetanareascurrentlyunderthe jurisdictionofthePeople’sRepublicofChina. CONTENTS SUMMARY......................................................................................................... 3 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 9 CULTURALGENOCIDE:AWORKINGDEFINITION....................................................... 15 EARLYTIBETANCULTURE...................................................................................... 23 IndigenousReligiousTraditions ............................................................................ 25 IntroductionofBuddhism.................................................................................... 26 MonasticEducationSystemanditsImpact................................................................ 28 Reincarnation................................................................................................... 30 TibetanLanguage............................................................................................ 34 TibetanScientificThought.................................................................................. 34 PRINCIPLESANDSTRUCTURESOFCHINESECOMMUNISTRULEINTIBET .................... 37 IdeologicalandNationalistRoots........................................................................... 38 TibetanAutonomywithChineseCharacteristics .......................................................... 42 LegalFramework ...................................................................................... 43 Extra-LegalFramework:theRoleoftheChineseCommunistParty................................ 45 DEVASTATIONOFTIBETANCULTURE ..................................................................... 53 TheMaoEra:Revolution,RepressionandResistance...................................................... 53 InvasionandOccupation ............................................................................. 54 TheGreatProletarianCulturalRevolution .......................................................... 60 TheReformandPost-ReformEras........................................................................... 64 Assaultonthe‘DalaiClique’.......................................................................... 67 IndoctrinationthroughEducationandLanguage................................................... 72 EconomicandDemographicPolicies ................................................................. 73 Twenty-firstCenturyTibet:Coercion,CrackdownandControl.......................................... 75 ReligioninServiceoftheParty:TheCommunistPartyasLivingBuddha......................... 78 i. TibetanSelf-ImmolationsandOtherProtests.................................................... 86 WesternDevelopment,NomadSettlementandPopulationInflux:GraspingwithManyHands... 89 i. TheWesternDevelopmentPlan .................................................................... 90 ii. NomadSettlement ................................................................................. 92 iii.PopulationInflux..................................................................................... 96 ThreatstoTibetanIntellectualLife................................................................... 98 i. ExclusionthroughEducationandLanguage..................................................... 99 ii. AttacksonIntellectuals.............................................................................. 102 STRUGGLEFORCULTURALSURVIVAL .................................................................. 115 CulturalResilience.......................................................................................... 115 TibetanWriters....................................................................................... 120 TibetanPopularMusic............................................................................... 122 ChineseCulturalHegemony............................................................................... 123 TIBET,CULTURALGENOCIDE,ANDTHEGENOCIDECONTINUUM................................ 129 RespondingtotheRealDangerofCulturalGenocideinTibet........................................... 136 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................... 143 RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................................................... 145 1 60 YEARS OF CHINESE MISRULE • ARGUING CULTURAL GENOCIDE IN TIBET 2 INTERNATIONAL CAMPAIGN FOR TIBET SUMMARY T hisreportisanexaminationbytheInternational Tibet, Cultural Genocide Campaign for Tibet of the impact on Tibetan and the Genocide Continuum cultureofChineseCommunistPartyruleinTibet. Itspublicationcomesatatimewhenthesituationonthe Becausetheterm‘culturalgenocide’isnotcodifiedin Tibetan plateau has reached a critical inflexion point. internationallaw,therehasbeensomeambiguityabout Having compiled this report, ICT makes the following whetheritisanappropriatelabelforthesituationinTibet findings: andwhat,ifanything,theapplicationofthislabelmeans •The Chinese authorities have engaged in a consistent fortheTibetanpeople,theChineseauthorities,andthe effort over 60-plus years to replace authentic, organic internationalcommunity.Thisreportaddressesthese Tibetanculturewithastate-approvedandcontrolledver- ambiguitiesby: sion that comports with the ideological, political and •Developingaworkingdefinitionfor‘culturalgenocide,’ economicobjectivesoftheChineseCommunistParty. rootedintheconventionalinternationallegaldiscourse Thisefforthasbeenpursuedthroughintentionalpolicies ofgenocideandinternationalhumanrightslaw; thataredesignedtofundamentallyalterTibetanculturein awaythatrobsitofitsessenceandturnsitintosome- •ReviewingthehistoryofChineseCommunistruleinTibet thingthattheChineseauthoritiescanmanage. withafocusonideologicalandpoliticalpolicydriversand themannerofimplementationofthesepolicies; •ChineseCommunistruleinTibethasexhibitedapattern ofrepression,relativeliberalization,vigorousreassertion •AnalyzingthehistoricalandpresentsituationinTibet ofculturalidentitybyTibetans,andrenewedrepression. inrelationtotheaforementionedworkingdefinitionof Thispatternisrootedintheapplicationofpoliciesthat culturalgenocide,andplacingthisanalysiswithinthe privilegetheChineseparty-state’sinterestsoverthoseof genocidecontinuum;and theTibetanpeople.Thesepoliciesare,inturn,basedona •Articulatingthebasesforstrongerinternationaleffortsto setofideologicalandnationalisticprinciplesthatperme- reversethecurrenttrendofculturallydestructivepolicies atethethinkingofChineseleadersandhavetakenholdon inTibet. asocietallevel. Byexaminingthehistoricalrecorduptothepresentday, •Chinesepoliciesandpracticesofculturalrepressionand particularly the documented actions and attitudes of destructionaresosystematicandpersistentinTibet,and successiveChineseCommunistleaderswhohaveshaped theireffectsaresoserious,thattheycontainelementsof andcontinuetoshapeTibetpolicy,thisreportfocuseson culturalgenocide. thecoreaspectsofculturaldestructioninTibetandhow •These elements of cultural genocide, combined with theyaredeeplyembeddedinthepoliticalstructureofthe certainconditionssuchas:ahistoryofactsofgenocide People’s Republic of China. This report highlights the against Tibetans as a religious group,1 unprecedented responsibilitiesoftheChinesegovernment,notonlyasthe communaltensions,andofficiallysanctionedstatements perpetratorofhumanrightsabusesagainsttheTibetan thatprovokeprejudiceandhatreddirectedatTibetans, peoplebutalsointheirself-selectedroleastheprimary have been recognized as precursors to conventional guarantorofTibetans’culturalrights.Thereportdemon- genocideelsewhere,andshouldsensitizetheinternational strates that the Chinese state has not only failed in its communitytotakerobustactioninthecaseofTibet. responsibilitytoprotecttheTibetanpeopleandtheirrights under Chinese and international law, it has been the 3 60 YEARS OF CHINESE MISRULE • ARGUING CULTURAL GENOCIDE IN TIBET primaryviolatorofthoserights.Thisculturalrepression whoseworkchallengesorrunscontrarytotheparty-state’s has been most visible and most intensely felt by the definednarrativeforTibet;arrestandtortureofTibetan Tibetansinthefollowingcoreareas: writers,artistsandotherswhoengageinculturalexpres- sionthatchallengestheparty-state’sdefinednarrativefor Attacksonreligion.TheChinesegovernmenthasfocused Tibet;andthe‘Disneyfication’ofTibetancultureinafash- oncontrolling,andunderminingwhentheyareunableto ionthatcommoditizesit,primarilyforthebenefitofnon- control,TibetanBuddhismaspracticedbythevastmajor- Tibetans. ityofTibetans.Theyhaveaccomplishedthisthrough:in- tenseregulationofandcontroloverreligiousinstitutions; DiscriminationagainstTibetansanddelegitimization policiesthatdiscourageaverageTibetansfromengagingin ofTibetanculture.Tibetanshavebeensubjecttoconsis- religious practice; patriotic education, propaganda and tentdiscriminatorypracticesunderChineseruleonthe otherpoliticalcampaignsthatarefundamentallyopposed basisoftheirethnicity,religionandpoliticalbeliefs.They tobasictenetsofTibetanBuddhism;manipulationoffac- havebeentargetedforbothofficialpunishmentandsocie- tionswithinTibetanBuddhisminordertoexacerbatein- talostracismbasedonexpressionsofthosebeliefs.The ternaldivisions;andovertrepression,includingrhetorical party-statehasengagedinacontinualpolicyandpropa- attacksonTibetanreligiousleaders,andthepublichumil- gandaeffortthatcharacterizesTibetancultureasbackward iation,detention,imprisonment,andtorture,collective andsomethingtoberemediatedthroughastate-directed punishmentandkillingofreligiousleadersandadherents. modernizationprocess.Chinesepoliciesandthemanner ofimplementingthesepoliciesshowaconsistentdisregard Imposition of inappropriate economic development for Tibetans’ human and cultural rights. These are not policies.Chinesepolicieshavetargetedculturallydistinct merelyindividualviolations;rather,theChinesestatehas Tibetanpastoraliststhroughforcedsedentarizationand clearlytargetedTibetansasagroup. other policies, including poorly developed and imple- mentedenvironmentalprotectionefforts.Thesepolicies Thereportfindscompellingevidencethattheparticular, andpracticeshavenotonlydeprivedTibetansoftheirliveli- intentionalpoliciesandpracticesofthepresentChinese hoodsbutalsoofanintimateconnectiontothelandand governmentarerootedinandhaveservedtoexacerbatea environmentthathasexistedforthousandsofyears.The highly unstable dynamic across the Tibetan plateau. Chineseparty-statehasappliedeconomicdevelopment Thecurrentdynamic,sinceatleastMarch2008,including policiesthatareheavilyreliantonextractiveindustry,in- theself-immolationsandotherformsofprotestagainst frastructure,andthemigrationintoTibetofalargenumber ChineseruleinTibet,ispartofabroadercontextthat ofnon-Tibetans.ThesepolicieshavedeprivedTibetansof should be viewed against the indicators that genocide controlovertheirownfutureandthreatentomakethema scholarshaveidentifiedaswarningsignsofpre-genocidal cultural,ifnotdemographic,minorityintheirownland. behaviorelsewhere.Thesewarningsignsinclude: Attacks on Tibetan intellectual and non-religious Ahistoryofactsofgenocide.Followingattemptsbythe cultural life. TheChineseparty-state’spoliciestargeting Tibetangovernmenttosecureinternationalsupportagainst theintellectualandnon-religiousculturallifeofTibetans the Chinese invasion and occupation of Tibet, and in include:denialofarangeoflinguisticrights,includingthe responsetothewidespread,systematicandtargetednature righttodevelopandusetheTibetanlanguageasthelan- oftheviolenceandphysicaldestructionofthe1950s,the guage of commerce, education and administration in InternationalCommissionofJurists(ICJ),agroupofinter- Tibetanareas;impositionoftheChineselanguageanda national legal scholars based in Geneva, produced two self-servingeducationalcurriculumonTibetanchildren, reportsonevidencerelatingtothequestionofgenocidein while simultaneously denying them opportunities for Tibet.Its1960reportfoundthat“actsofgenocidehadbeen culturaldevelopmentandexpression;denialofpublication committedinTibetinanattempttodestroytheTibetansas andotherculturalexpressionforTibetanlanguagewriters areligiousgroup.”2 4 INTERNATIONAL CAMPAIGN FOR TIBET Severe and systemic state repression.Since2008, largesse.Afterthe2008protests,adhocdiscriminatory Lhasa and other areas have been placed under security practicestargetedTibetans,someofwhichcontinuetothe situationstantamounttomartiallaw.Tibetansacrossthe present. plateau have experienced increased restriction of their rightstofreedomofspeech,assemblyandreligion,aswell Hate propaganda.WhileChinesestate-ownedmedia aslarge-scaleroundupsofcivilians,suchasthosethathave arguably has become more plural in recent years, the occurredintheNgabaareasinceAugust2011.Tortureand dominantnarrativesregardingTibetarefixedandremain illtreatmentofTibetandetaineesisbrutalandendemic, the primary source of information on Tibet for most andhasincludeddeathsincustody.Whilesomeofthese Chinese.ChinesepropagandanarrativesonTibetrunina practicesarepresentthroughoutChina,thereisaqualita- limitedrangefromsoftchauvinistOrientalismtovirulent tivedifferenceintheparty-state’sresponsetoprotestsand nationalistscreeds.Anti-DalaiLamapropagandaincreas- unregulatedculturalandreligiousexpressioninTibet. inglyportrayshimasaprovocateur—includingcompar- inghimtoHitlerandaccusinghimofseekingNazi-style Inter-communal conflict.Instancesofinter-communal ethniccleansingofChinesefromTibet. violencehavebeenpersistentfeaturesofChineseCom- munistruleofTibet.TheChinesecommunityhasexercised Severe economic disparities.TheChineseregimere- amonopolyonthecoercivepowerofthestate,andChi- mainsheavilydependentoneconomicgrowthasakeypil- neseauthoritieshaveconsistentlyrespondedtoTibetans’ larofitspoliticallegitimacy,includinginTibet,although largelynon-violentresistancewithdisproportionateforce many economists consider the PRC’s present level and and attempts to blame Tibetans when violence occurs. modelofeconomicgrowthtobeunstableandunsustain- Relationsbetweenthetwocommunitiesarepresentlytense able.3TheTibetaneconomyisevenmoreunbalanced.Itis andthetrendisworsening. heavilyreliantonChinesegovernmentsubsidies,withthe additionalaspectsofmassChinesemigrationanddomina- Mobilization along lines of community cleavage. tionofeconomicopportunities,andashiftawayfrom TheChinesecommunitycontrolstheleversofpoliticaland traditionallivelihoodsthroughwhichTibetanshadbeen economicpowerinTibet,leavingTibetansfrustratedand self-reliant. marginalized.State-runmediahaveexacerbatedcommu- nitycleavageswithanti-Tibetanpropaganda,including Additionalriskfactors.Twoparticularinternaldivisions, ominouscallsfora‘people’swar’inTibet.Historically,such bothofwhicharepresentintheTibetancontext,have communitycleavageshaveheightenedthepotentialfor historically been among the most powerful triggers of inter-communalviolence—suchasoccurredinLhasain genocidalbehavior:differencesofreligionbetweenthe March 2008 and in the attacks on Tibetan students in aggressorsandvictimthatservetoalienateanddehuman- ChengduinDecember2011.Intheseinstances,thecycle ize the victims; and struggles for greater autonomy, or ofviolenceescalatedquicklyandbrokedownstarklyalong denial of the right to self-determination. As this report ethniclines,asdidreactionstoit. makes clear, the Chinese party-state has zeroedin on religionasthekeytotheircontroloverTibet. Unjustdiscriminatorylegislationandrelatedmeas- ures. The Chinese party-state’s historic narrative casts ThehighlycontentiousquestionofChineselegitimacy Tibetansas‘backward’peoplewhorequireChineseassis- inTibetlikewiseservesasameta-narrativeforChinese tancetomodernize.TheChinesestate’s‘positivediscrimi- culturalrepression,anditisoverlaidbythefailureofthe nation’policies—boththosetoassistindividualTibetans, Chineseparty-state’sconceptionofautonomytoadequately suchaseducationaladmissionspreferencesandfamily addressTibetans’desireforself-determination,particularly planningexceptions,aswellasforcedprovince-to-province asitrelatestocontrolovertheirownculturaldestiny.The financialassistancetoTibetanareas—contributetoaview systemofautonomy,aspracticed,ispredicatedonabelief of Tibetans as indolent and ungrateful toward Chinese thattheChineseparty-stateisbetterpositionedthanthe 5