Arguing About Science A rguing About Science is an outstanding, engaging introduction to the essential topics in philosophy of science, edited by two leading experts in the fi eld. This exciting and innovative anthology contains a selection of classic and contemporary readings that examine a broad range of issues, from classic problems such as scientifi c reasoning, causation, and scientifi c realism, to more recent topics such as science and race, forensic science, and the scientifi c status of medicine. The editors bring together some of the most infl uential contributions of famous philosophers in the fi eld, including John Stuart Mill and Karl Popper, as well as more recent extracts from philosophers and scientists such as Ian Hacking, Stephen Jay Gould, Bas van Fraassen, Nancy Cartwright and John Worrall. The anthology is organised into nine clear sections: • Science, non science and pseudo-science • Science, race and gender • Scientifi c reasoning • Scientifi c explanation • Laws and causation • Science and medicine • Probability and forensic science • Risk, uncertainty and science policy • Scientifi c realism and antirealism. The articles chosen are clear, interesting, and free from unnecessary jargon. The editors provide lucid introductions to each section in which they give an overview of the debate, as well as suggestions for further reading. Alexander Bird is Professor of Philosophy and Faculty of Arts Research Director at Bristol University, UK. His previous publications include N ature’s Metaphysics: Laws and Properties (2007) and P hilosophy of Science (1998). James Ladyman is Professor of Philosophy at Bristol University, UK. He is the author (with Ross, Spurrett and Collier) of E very Thing Must Go: Metaphysics Naturalised (2007) and of the C hoice awarding-winning book U nderstanding Philosophy of Science (Routledge, 2001). Arguing About Philosophy This exciting and lively series introduces key subjects in philosophy with the help of a vibrant set of readings. In contrast to many standard anthologies which often reprint the same technical and remote extracts, each volume in the A rguing About Philosophy series is built around essential but fresher philosophical readings, designed to attract the curiosity of students coming to the subject for the fi rst time. A key feature of the series is the inclusion of well-known yet often neglected readings from related fi elds, such as popular science, fi lm and fi ction. Each volume is edited by leading fi gures in their chosen fi eld and each section carefully introduced and set in context, making the series an exciting starting point for those looking to get to grips with philosophy. A rguing About Metaethics Edited by Andrew Fisher and Simon Kirchin A rguing About the Mind Edited by Brie Gertler and Lawrence Shapiro A rguing About Art 3rd Edition Edited by Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley A rguing About Knowledge Edited by Duncan Pritchard and Ram Neta A rguing About Law Edited by John Oberdiek and Aileen Kanvanagh A rguing About Metaphysics Edited by Michael Rea A rguing About Religion Edited by Kevin Timpe A rguing About Political Philosophy Edited by Matt Zwolinski A rguing About Language Edited by Darragh Byrne and Max Kolbel A rguing About Bioethics Edited by Stephen Holland Forthcoming titles: A rguing About Political Philosophy 2nd Edition Edited by Matt Zwolinski Arguing About Science Edited by Alexander Bird and James Ladyman First published 2013 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2013 Alexander Bird and James Ladyman The right of the editors to be identifi ed as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifi cation and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Arguing about science / edited by Alexander Bird and James Ladyman. p. cm. – (Arguing about philosophy) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Science–Philosophy. I. Bird, Alexander, 1964–II. Ladyman, James, 1969– Q175.3.A72 2012 501–dc23 2012009171 ISBN: 978-0-415-49229-4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-49230-0 (pbk) Typeset in Joanna and Bell Gothic by Refi neCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk Contents A cknowledgements x General Introduction 1 PART ONE What is science? 3 Introduction to Part One 5 1 Karl Popper 15 SCIENCE: CONJECTURES AND REFUTATIONS 2 Adolf Grünbaum 44 IS FREUDIAN PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC BY KARL POPPER’S CRITERION OF DEMARCATION? 3 Stephen Jay Gould 59 THE MISMEASURE OF MAN 4 Thomas S. Kuhn 74 OBJECTIVITY, VALUE JUDGMENT, AND THEORY CHOICE PART TWO Science, race and gender 87 Introduction to Part Two 89 5 Sally Haslanger 95 GENDER AND RACE: (WHAT) ARE THEY? (WHAT) DO WE WANT THEM TO BE? vi Contents 6 Helena Cronin 117 THE BATTLE OF THE SEXES REVISITED 7 Evelyn Fox Keller 125 BEYOND THE GENE BUT BENEATH THE SKIN 8 Lucius T. Outlaw 140 TOWARD A CRITICAL THEORY OF “RACE” 9 Robin O. Andreasen 160 RACE: BIOLOGICAL REALITY OR SOCIAL CONSTRUCT? 10 Joshua M. Glasgow 170 ON THE NEW BIOLOGY OF RACE 11 Clark Glymour 184 WHAT WENT WRONG? REFLECTIONS ON SCIENCE BY OBSERVATION AND T HE BELL CURVE PART THREE Scientifi c reasoning 207 Introduction to Part Three 209 12 Peter Lipton 217 INDUCTION 13 Hilary Putnam 228 THE “CORROBORATION” OF THEORIES 14 John Stuart Mill 243 A SYSTEM OF LOGIC 15 William Whewell 268 OF CERTAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC INDUCTION Contents vii 16 Peter Achinstein 282 WAVES AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD 17 Michael Strevens 293 NOTES ON BAYESIAN CONFIRMATION THEORY PART FOUR Explanation 329 Introduction to Part Four 331 18 Wesley C. Salmon 337 SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION 19 Bas van Fraassen 366 THE PRAGMATICS OF EXPLANATION 20 Peter Lipton 409 EXPLANATION PART FIVE Laws and causation 415 Introduction to Part Five 417 21 Fred I. Dretske 423 LAWS OF NATURE 22 Bas van Fraassen 439 WHAT ARE LAWS OF NATURE? 23 Marc Lange 455 NATURAL LAWS AND THE PROBLEM OF PROVISOS 24 Nancy Cartwright 466 CAUSAL LAWS AND EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES viii Contents PART SIX Science and medicine 481 Introduction to Part Six 483 25 Ronald Munson 489 WHY MEDICINE CANNOT BE A SCIENCE 26 Kenneth F. Schaffner 506 PHILOSOPHY OF MEDICINE 27 School of Health and Related Research, University of Sheffi eld 540 HIERARCHY OF EVIDENCE 28 John Worrall 543 W HAT EVIDENCE IN EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE? PART SEVEN Probability in action: forensic science 555 Introduction to Part Seven 557 29 William C. Thompson and Edward L. Schumann 561 INTERPRETATION OF STATISTICAL EVIDENCE IN CRIMINAL TRIALS: THE PROSECUTOR’S FALLACY AND THE DEFENSE ATTORNEY’S FALLACY 30 Neven Sesardic´ 579 SUDDEN INFANT DEATH OR MURDER? A ROYAL CONFUSION ABOUT PROBABILITIES PART EIGHT Risk, uncertainty and science policy 603 Introduction to Part Eight 605 31 Neil A. Manson 607 FORMULATING THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE Contents ix 32 Per Sandin, Martin Peterson, Sven Ove Hansson, Christina Rudén and André Juthe 617 FIVE CHARGES AGAINST THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE 33 Sven Ove Hansson 629 RISK AND ETHICS: THREE APPROACHES PART NINE Scientifi c realism and antirealism 641 Introduction to Part Nine 643 34 Pierre Duhem 651 THE AIM AND STRUCTURE OF PHYSICAL THEORY 35 Henri Poincaré 694 THE THEORIES OF MODERN PHYSICS 36 Larry Laudan 703 A CONFUTATION OF CONVERGENT REALISM 37 Bas van Fraassen 727 ARGUMENTS CONCERNING SCIENTIFIC REALISM 38 Ian Hacking 753 EXPERIMENTATION AND SCIENTIFIC REALISM 39 John Worrall 765 STRUCTURAL REALISM: THE BEST OF BOTH WORLDS? I ndex 785