The Semantics of the Future by Bridget Lynn Copley B.A. Linguistics Yale University, 1996 Submitted to the Department of Linguistics and Philosophy in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics at the MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY September 2002 © Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2002. All rights reserved. Author "./../.. j.'-"'/0 'j"/'-' - _/' VD~rtmen•t• . . . 'Li~~~is.t•i.c•s•~~'.d Phii~~~•ph~ of August 28, 2002 Certified by "_ Sabine Iatridou Professor of Linguistics Thesis Supervisor Accepted by .. " \/. :~..- {j' . Alec Marantz Professor of Linguistics Head, Department of Linguistics and Philosophy J MASSACHUSETTSfNSTlTUTE OFTECHNOLOGY 2_~ [ SEP 2002] . ARCH\ve.s~l LIBRARIES The Semantics of the Future by Bridget Lynn Copley Submitted to the Department ofLinguistics and Philosophy on August 28, 2002, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor ofPhilosophy in Linguistics ABSTRACT Natural languages use a number ofdifferent methods to refer to future eventualities: among them are futurates, as in (la), and futures, as in (lb) and (Ie). (1) a. The Red Sox (are) play(ing) the Yankees tomorrow. b. We'll change your oil in Madera. c. We're going to change your oil in Madera. This dissertation uses evidence primarily from English, with additional data from Turkish andIndonesian, to argue that these methods all involve universal quantificationover subsets of metaphysically accessible futures. One factor in determining which worlds a modalquantifies over is the temporal argument of the modal's accessibility relation. Itiswell-knownthat ahigher tense affects the accessibility relationofmodals. What is not well-known is that there are aspectualoperators highenough to affect the accessibility relation of modals. New data presented in this dissertation reveal the presence of aspectual operators located between TP and the future modal projection. The effects of these operators on truth and assertability conditions provide substantial information about the correct characterization of future modality, and indeed of modality in general. Furthermore, the very existence of such aspeetual operators raises questions about how aspect is represented in the semantics, if (as is generally assumed) aspeetual operators take event arguments, which do not occur outside of the verb phrase. Thesis Supervisor: Sabine Iatridou Title: Professor of Linguistics 2 Acknowledgments On my family's very first computer, a Tandy TRS-80 that we got in 1982, there was a program called "dissertation." When you typed in RUN DISSERTATION, the screen would scroll a lot ofgobbledegook that could only be stopped by hitting the BREAK key. I thought this was fascinating. It was second only to making the computer sound like it was falling down the stairs by typing individual letters into the primitive speech synthesis program, another favorite pastime. But the result of this was that for a number of years I thought that the word dissertation actually meant 'a lot ofgobbledegook'. I see now that I was not entirely wrong. But to the extent that any part of this particular dissertation fails to be gobbledegook, the following people are to thank. I have been lucky to have had Sabine Iatridou as my committee chair. She is blessed with stunningly precise aspectual and modal intuitions, and a great gift for making them all lie flat. She has consistently militated against gobbledegook in my thinking and in my prose. She has encouraged me to trust my instincts. More than anything, throughout this process she constantly and vociferously expressed her belief in me, in a tone that brooked no dissent. Speaking of dissent, I have been privileged to learn first-hand that Noam Chomsky is as brilliant as they say. He has an unwillingness to take assumptions for granted, an unwillingness that has had a big impact on this dissertation. I have been both helped and inspired by Noam's compassion, his optimism, and his voracious interest in things that he does not personally work on. I sometimes forget that in his spare time he is famous. Kai von Fintel must think inlambda notation. I amso thankful that he does not tolerate sloppy math, because I am sloppy by nature and I wasn't going to get anywhere without writing everything down correctly. Kai was also very patient with my futurate obsession early on, when I'm sure he just wished I would settle down with a nice quantifier scope problem instead. Finally, I am grateful to Kai for curtailing his sabbatical this summer to be on my committee. Irene Heim often seems to know what I am getting at, even when I don't myself know. I have no idea how she can be so quick. It blows my mind. I also have no idea how she read and commented on all the dissertations she graciously agreed to read and comment on this summer, and I'm just glad that mine could be one of them. I might have asked Norvin Richards (the syntactician, not the ethicist, though the ethicist is a nice guy too) to be on my committee, were it not for the fact that he is a dear friend. As a syntactician, he has answered my questions at all hours of the day and night. As an Algonquianist, he has made me glad that I do not work on Algonquian languages. And as a chocolate aficionado, he has provided all of us with M&Ms; I know I join others in the department in expressing thanks from the bottom of my stomach. Someone else who I would have wanted to ask to be on my committee was Ken Hale. His passing last fall was a cruel loss in a season ofcruel loss. Ken taught me so much, by his own example more than anything, about how to do theoretical work on minority languages, while respecting the people who speak them. His boundless kindness and many talents are legendary. Like everyone else who knew him, I miss him tremendously. A great number of other people were directly involved in the research that led to this dissertation. Various people either read and commented on partial drafts, or let me talk at 3 them at length: Nuel Belnap, Gennaro Chierchia, Cleo Condoravdi, Mike Dickey, Danny Fox, Heidi Harley, Patrick Hawley, Michela Ippolito, Angelika Kratzer, Chris Pinon, Barry Schein, Philippe Schlenker, Bob Stalnaker, and participants at the 2000 UMass-UConn-MIT semantics workshop, SALT XI, NELS 32, and the UiL-OTS Perspectives on Aspect confer ence. The dissertation benefitted greatly from their insights. Robert Binnick's comprehen siveonline bibliographies (http://www.scar.utoronto.ca/binnick/TENSE/BIBLIO.html) were immensely helpful as well. Joseph 'Jofish' Kaye, Becky Marshall, and Elena Guerzoni all lent me their editorial expertise on part or all of the text, for which I am grateful (you should be too). This dissertation would have been quite short without data. I have been lucky enough to work with many astute consultants, both linguists and non-linguists. By language, they are: Eric Albert, Joseph "Jofish" Kaye, Sharon Teitlebaum, and too many speakers at MIT to thank here (English); Sabine Iatridou (Greek); Wendy Ham, Yonathan Thio, Diana Yuliyanti, and Natanael Perangin (Indonesian); Ken Hiraiwa, Toshiyaki Inada, Shinichiro Ishihara, Kimiko Nakanishi, Shigeru Miyagawa, and Shogo Suzuki (Japanese, and while we're on the topic I'd like to thank my Japanese teachers, senseis Nagaya, Yamamoto, Ikei, and Hatano); and Meltem Kelepir and Giilsat Aygen (Turkish). A number of other academic types had a more indirect but no less important impact on this research. The people I began graduate school with, as ling-96, are wonderful folks and helped me get through a lot of this: Calixto Aguero, Sveva Besana, Meltem Kelepir, CorneliaKrause, Vivian Lin, Jay Rifkin, and SonnyVu. The people I endedgraduate school with are also wonderful, and helped me nurture my last remaining shreds of sanity; Karlos Arregi, Elissa Flagg, Michela Ippolito, Vivian Lin, and Andrea Rackowski. They helped me sit down and work when I did not want to sit down and work, and variously provided me with sympathy, empathy, advice, judgments, outlet shopping, Jb.1EX assistance, comfy chairs, food, motivation, rationalization, knitting, Buffytapes, catchphrases, and friendship. I will miss them a lot. Iwill not beable to recall oreven alphabetizethe large number oflinguists at and around MIT that have had a positive impact on my graduate education. In, I swear, no particular order, I would like to thank Alec Marantz, Shigeru Miyagawa, Cheryl Zoll, Danny Fox, Morris Halle, Michael Kenstowicz, David Pesetsky, Michel DeGraff, Wayne O'Neil, Maya Honda, Martha McGinnis, Patrick Hawley, Orin Percus, Uli Sauerland, Kazuko Yatsushiro, Kai Yasa, Ben Bruening, Paul Elbourne, Liina Pylkkanen, Elena Guerzoni, Martin Hackl, Jon Nussenbaum, Chris Bader, Paul Hagstrom, Philippe Schlenker, Idan Landau, Lance Nathan, Teal Bissell, Julie Legate, and *the six or eight people who I will wake up in the t middle of the night realizing that I forgot to thank t. Linguistics and language folks from elsewhere who were ofgreat help include Mike Terry at UMass, and Andrew Carnie, Heidi Harley, Sheilah Nicholas, Rachel LaMantia, Jasper Kingsley, Albert Alvarez, Terry Langendoen, Mary Ann Willie, Jayne Cookman, and Ofelia Zepeda at the University of Arizona. In my previous life before graduate school, I had a lot of fantastic teachers. When I began at Yale, I thought I might want to major in linguistics, and Larry Horn's classes were so intriguing that I did, despite the threats on the part of the administration to shut down the department entirely. Larry was a great senior essay advisor as well. I'd also like to thank Louis Goldstein, Brian Gick, Stanley Insler, Abby Kaun, and Dianne Jonas for their teaching, advice, and friendship; and everyone at Cappuccino Hour and Mary's for their important work on the steamed milk-coffee interface and the velvet cups. Thanks are also 4 due my Yale logic professors Aldo Antonelli, Paddy Blanchette, and Paolo Mancosu, and Dorothea Sanders and Melanie Hodge at Amherst Central School District for their early encouragement. Lastly, I am especially grateful to Betty Krist at the Gifted Math Program at SUNY Buffalo for originally getting me hooked on the wonderful world ofsymbolic logic. Though it may seem odd to acknowledge a building (and I beg those who are thanked below not to be offended that they are being thanked after an inanimate object), no one who crossed paths with MIT linguistics before 1997 should find it bizarre that I would like to acknowledge Building 20 for its unique role in my graduate education. I benefited from the technical and professional expertise of a great many people at MIT and elsewhere. I would first like to thank those at Project Athena for their fine system; I wrote the entire dissertation on my Athena account (which, incidentally, I just found out is located on sisyphus.mit.edu - this explains a lot). Garry Zacheiss and Dan Kamalic provided help with Unix, Linux, and Tether early on. Joseph 'Jofish' Kaye got and kept my DSL working, and has lent me all sorts of stuff, including a Sony Vaio named Jose Andres, 9.1EX on which the bulkofthe text came together. I have gotten much-needed help from the ling-tex list, Ben Bruening, Kados Arregi and various Athena online consultants, especially Laura Baldwin. An MIT undergraduate once asked me in disbelief, "You mean, you don't feel like the Institute is out to get you?" The reason I don't feel that way is because of the fantastic Linguistics and Philosophy staff: Mary Grenham, who I am convinced can make anything happen; Jen Purdy, who I am convinced knows everything, Stefanie Hanlon, who beat up the Travel Office for me on several occasions; Bev Stohl, who none of us could live without; Dan Giblin, who kept us all playing games instead of working; and Anne Cahill, Christine Graham, Glenn Ketterle, Chris Naylor, and Rachel Pearl. Financial support for this research was provided in part by a National Science Foun dation Graduate Research Fellowship, the MIT Department of Linguistics and Philsophy, a Kosciuszko Foundation Tuition Fellowship, the Ken Hale Fund, and the Kelly-Douglas Fund. I gratefully acknowledge, as well, those who gave me opportunities for occasional freelancing: Wayne Schmittberger, Michael Abrams, Bill Eilfort, Sabine Iatridou, and Jin Gyo Kim. Several mentors have helpedme keep mind, body, and soultogether throughout this pro cess. I would not be where I am now without the support and advice ofAmy Brager, Jenny Briggs, Rich Goldhammer, Nancy McGrath, Margaret O'Keefe, Bina Patel, and Sharon Teitelbaum. Finally, the mushy part: friends and family. My friends have all expressed their belief in me at every opportunity, and reminded me that there was more to life than graduate school. From Buffalo: Becky Marshall, who tooksuch good care ofme this month; Christine Marshall, who I wish I could see more of; Jim and Kathy Marshall, my parents-away-from parents; and Logan McCarty, who has been a godsend when I have wanted company but had no energy to be social. From college: my good friends Josh Rauh and Carolyn Carlson; Rachel Trousdale, who, bless her, knows what I've been through; the irrepressible Paula Oliveira; and a very special no thanks to Bobby Lopez. In Cambridge: Tania Mandzy, Tanis O'Connor, Chris 'Silvain' Barney, Matthias Ferber, Zoe Teegarden, and Katherine Bryant. From UPenn (by way ofHelsinki): Kimiko Nakanishi and Elsi Kaiser. Thank you all. I have many friends who I typically see in families and groups, who have also helped me 5 in my struggle to finish my dissertation. I was so happy to get to know Toshiaki, Masayo, Shun, and FUmi Inada during Toshiaki's sabbatical year at MIT. I'm grateful, too, for their making it possible for me to visit them in Fukuoka. Thanks too to Mariko, Koji, Erika, and Kent Nakanishi, who have been great fun and support. I would like to thank all my friends at the MIT Gilbert & Sullivan Players for sharing me with the God of Research. And finally, props and abject gratitude to everyone at ACME/Vile who made the Carmen Sandiego hunt happen in 1999, and who are making the 2003 hunt happen even as I type. By the way, you didn't hear it from me, but the theme of the 24th annual MIT Mystery Hunt is, coincidentally enough, "The Semantics of the Future." (2003 hunters: This is not a hint.) Three friends in particular warrant special mention. As my roommate Jennifer Cunningham has pointed out to me, she and I have lived together for so long that in some states we would be considered common-law spouses. For the last six years she has been my support system, my music supplier, my partner in crime, my co-star, my external memory unit, my better half, and my best buddy. She is the salt of the earth - warm, funny, smart as a tack, and loyal - and I am so very glad we realized, at that fateful Yale linguistics picnic in 1996, that we were both moving to the Boston area and should live together. Joseph 'Jofish' Kaye did his level best to keep me relaxed, networked, fed, and working throughout the last few months. He is a wonderful, thoughtful cook; ifyou ask him to state his guiding principles, he will tell you that one of them is the principle of good food for everyone in the world, which has to be one of the most excellent principles there is. He can fix anything from computers to cars to people, and has at one time or another done all three for me. He is gloriously friendly and warm, and interested in nearly every subject. I am lucky to have such a loving and talented friend. Oh, and he drives a really cool car. I thanked Norvin Richards qualinguist above, but here I want to thank Norvin Richards qua friend. There is no one like Norvin. Behind the bushy beard, mild manner, scary language skills, and devastatingly good syntactic theory, are great reserves ofstrength and compassion. He is always willing to believe that people are doing the best they can. He will happily do anything within reason to come to the aid ofa friend or even a stranger. He has helped me so much just to figure out what my work in life is, and besides, he is great at finding the fun side of everything. I wish Norvin a zooful of ocelots, marmosets, larmings, and Serengeti gobblers. My extended family has been a source of love and support for as long as I can remem ber. They have been pulling for me like no one else. They have also graciously provided me with names to use in my example sentences when I get tired of the same old John and-Mary routine. In addition, seven tiny cousins of various remove, all of whom arrived during my graduate school career, have given me some wonderful stress relief. Thanks and love to Celeste and John DiStefano; Chelsea, Eric, Max, and Zoe D'Astolfo; Delaney and Mike Higgs, Barbara, Dave, Steph, Lauren, and Tasha Copley; Marissa Budziszewski, Dale Rubach, Sandy Poteet, Cheryl, Jeff, John Paul, and Wesley Vance, and new arrival Morgan Vance. I would also like to remember my late grandparents, Chester and Evelyn Rubach, and Louis and Ann Copley, for all they did for me. My penultimate thanks, along with a lot of love, go to my brother Devon, who seems to go around telling everyone that I am the smartest person he knows. Lastly, thanks and love to my parents, without whom nothing. 6 To the memory and legacy ofKen Hale 7 Contents 1 Introduction 12 1.1 Tools. · . 14 1.1.1 Syntactic assumptions 14 1.1.2 The intensional system . 14 1.1.3 Tense, aspect, Aktionsart, and temporal adverbials 15 1.1.4 Talking about times 19 1.1.5 Modality · . 20 1.1.5.1 The modal base 20 1.1.5.2 The ordering source 21 1.1.6 Branching futures: times and worlds 23 1.2 Overview · . 25 2 Modality and Aspect in Futurates 27 2.1 Meaning. · . 28 2.1.1 Initial hypothesis: PLAN. 28 2.1.2 Disadvantages of this approach 30 2.1.2.1 A problem with the assertion 30 2.1.2.2 The need for a presupposition 30 2.1.3 A solution and its implications 31 2.1.3.1 A solution 31 2.1.3.2 Directors 33 2.1.3.3 Futurates without a director 36 2.2 Syntax. · . 40 2.2.1 Lower bound for PLAN . 41 8 2.2.1.1 Temporal adverbial evidence for lower bound 41 2.2.1.2 Gerund evidence for lower bound . 41 2.2.2 Upper bound for PLAN . 44 2.2.2.1 Background on punctual adverbials 44 2.2.2.2 Punctual adverbials in progressive futurates 45 2.2.3 Manner adverbials . 45 2.2.3.1 Background on mannner adverbials 45 2.2.3.2 Manner adverbials and progressive futurates 47 2.2.3.3 Manner adverbials in more complex progressive futurates 49 2.3 Conclusion 53 3 Ordering and Aspect in Futures 55 3.1 Ordering in futures ... 59 3.1.1 Inertia in futures 59 3.1.1.1 The Inertia Principle for futures 60 3.1.1.2 A new Inertia Principle 61 3.1.2 Boulesis in futures . . ... 63 3.1.2.1 Fate-in-hindsight .. 65 3.2 Aspect in futures .. 66 3.2.1 Present input 67 3.2.1.1 Some unbelieveable data 67 3.2.1.2 Contexts that rule out generics. 68 3.2.2 Indefinites. 70 3.2.3 Summary. 73 3.3 Aspect constrains the accessibility relation . 73 3.3.1 The pragmatics of offering. 74 3.3.2 Back to the billboard 75 3.3.3 Proposal . 77 3.3.4 Explaining the puzzle 79 3.4 Aspect constrains the choice of ordering 82 3.4.1 Durative adverbials . 83 3.4.2 Changes of plans .. 84 9 3.4.3 Summary 86 3.5 Dispositional will 86 3.5.1 Genericity in dispositional will 86 3.5.2 Dissimilarities with generic will 87 3.5.3 Hypothesis . 89 3.5.4 Facts from Indonesian 90 3.6 Conclusion . 91 4 Futures and Futurates in Conditionals 92 4.1 Conditional contexts . . . . . 96 4.1.1 Relevance conditionals 96 4.1.2 Indication and causal contexts 98 4.1.3 Wide scope gen-will and be going to 102 4.2 Pinning down the SIP entailment . . . . . . 105 4.2.1 Main verbs and the SIP entailment. 105 4.2.1.1 The box relation . . . . . . 105 4.2.1.2 SIP entailments correlating with main verb SIP value 110 4.2.2 Implementing the mechanism . . . . . 116 4.2.3 Other operators and SIP entailments. 119 4.2.3.1 PAST...... 119 4.2.3.2 PROG and GEN 120 4.2.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . 123 4.3 Temporal interpretation of antecedent and consequent 124 4.3.1 Lemma 1: Type 1 conditionals 124 4.3.2 Lemma 2: Type 2 conditionals 127 4.3.3 Which conditional is which? . . 130 4.3.4 Why the SIP value of p doesn't matter. 131 4.4 Formal details. . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 4.4.1 Temporal location and aspect 133 4.4.2 Denotation of Ep . . . . . . . 133 4.4.3 Denotations of type 2 modals 134 4.5 Questions about ordering 135 10