E d Archaeology in Practice it e Edited by Jane Balme d b y B and Alistair Paterson a “This comprehensive, instructive, and user-friendly guide assembles the work of leading l m experts to fill a key niche in archaeological analysis. It will prove an invaluable aid to e both students and teachers.” a n d Claire Smith, President, World Archaeological Congress P a t “Moving beyond theoretical debates that began in the 1960s, this book shows how e r scientifically-grounded archaeological analysis can solve problems encountered in the s o field and laboratory directly and convincingly. Bravo!” n Richard Gould, Brown University A Archaeology in Practice: A Student Guide to Archaeological Analyses offers to students on r archaeology laboratory courses a detailed and invaluable how-to manual of archaeological c methods. Written by specialists in material analyses, whose expertise represents a broad h geographical range, Archaeology in Practice provides insight into the breadth of modern a archaeology. e Archaeology o Each chapter is organized either by material types, such as animal bones, ceramics, stone l o artifacts, and documentary sources, or by themes, such as dating, ethics, and report g writing. Archaeology in Practice is written in a style that is accessible to students, and y each chapter is amply referenced to provide readers with a guide to further resources on particular techniques and their applications. In addition, the book is enlivened and i in Practice n illustrated by boxed case studies throughout the main text. P The editors r Jane Balme is Senior Lecturer at the University of Western Australia. a c Alistair Paterson is Lecturer in Archaeology at the University of Western Australia. t i A Student Guide to c e Main cover image: Archaeologist at dig site in Colonial Williamsburg, USA, © Tim Wright / CORBIS Small cover image: Student in archaeology lab at University of Western Australia, © 2004 Alistair Paterson Archaeological Analyses Cover design by Richard Boxall Design Associates Printed in India Visit our website at www.blackwellpublishing.com BBaallmmee__DDooiinngg AArrcchhaaeeoollooggyy PPBB..iinndddd 11 2200//77//0055 33::5544::5500 ppmm Archaeology in Practice Edited by Jane Balme and Alistair Paterson Archaeology in Practice A Student Guide to Archaeological Analyses © 2006 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd BLACKWELL PUBLISHING 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK 550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia The right of Jane Balme and Alistair Paterson to be identified as the Authors of the Editorial Material in this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. First published 2006 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd 1 2006 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Archaeology in practice : a student guide to archaeological analyses / edited by Jane Balme and Alistair Paterson. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-631-23573-6 (hardback : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-631-23573-6 (hardback : alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978-0-631-23574-3 (pbk.: alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-631-23574-4 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Archaeology—Methodology. 2. Archaeology—Laboratory manuals. I. Balme, Jane. II. Paterson, Alistair 1968– CC75.A657 2006 930.1—dc22 2005006163 A catalog record for this title is available from the British Library. Set in 11/13.5pt Dante by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong Printed and bound in India by Replika Press, PVT Ltd, India The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free practices. Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards. For further information on Blackwell Publishing, visit our website: www.blackwellpublishing.com Contents Chapter Abstracts xvi Preface and Acknowledgments xx Notes on Contributors xxiii 1 Finding Sites 1 Andrew David Introduction 1 Archaeological Prospection 1 Remote Sensing 2 Aerial photography 2 Remote imaging 4 High-altitude photography 5 Multispectral imaging 6 Thermal imaging 7 Airborne radar and LIDAR 8 Field Methods 9 Reconnaissance survey 9 Earthwork survey 9 Intrusive and semi-intrusive methods 10 Metal detection 11 Geochemical survey 12 Ground-Based Remote Sensing: Geophysical Methods 12 Electrical methods 13 Magnetic techniques 15 Topsoil magnetic susceptibility survey 20 Electromagnetic (EM) detection: ground-penetrating radar 21 Other geophysical methods 25 Underwater geophysical techniques 26 The Future Role and Development of Archaeological Prospecting 30 Acknowledgments 33 Resources 33 References 34 2 Consulting Stakeholders 39 Larry J. Zimmerman Introduction 39 What and Who is an Archaeological Stakeholder? 40 A Brief History of Interaction between Archaeologists and Other Stakeholders 41 Learning to work with stakeholders: a personal journey 41 Learning to work with stakeholders: a discipline’s journey 44 Differing Ways of Knowing the Past 47 True or valid? 47 How can there be different versions of the same past? 48 General Thoughts about How to Consult with Stakeholders 50 Specific Issues and Concerns 50 Differential power levels 51 Competing claims 51 Informed consent 52 When pasts conflict 52 Good Examples of Consultation with Stakeholders 53 Why Consult with Stakeholders? The Past as Cultural and Intellectual Property 54 Acknowledgments 55 References 55 3 Rock-Art 59 Jo McDonald What is Rock-Art? 59 How is Rock-Art Made? 60 Classification 60 Technique 61 Form 61 Motif 62 Size 62 Character 62 vi CONTENTS How is Rock-Art Recorded? 62 Photography 63 Drawing and sketching 66 Tracing 67 Counting 69 How is Rock-Art Analyzed? 69 Informed methods 70 Formal (or structural) methods 70 Spatial distribution analysis 71 Information exchange and stylistic heterogeneity 71 Gendered behavior and art 72 Statistical techniques 72 Diachronic change 73 Dating art 73 Differential weathering and patination 75 Chronology from spatial analysis 75 Superimposition analysis 76 Stylistic dating 76 Association of dated portable art 77 Association with dated archaeological deposit or art materials 77 Portrayal of datable subject matter 78 Direct (or absolute) dating 79 Case Study: The Depiction of Species in Macropod Track Engravings 80 The zoological experiment 81 The results 82 The archaeological experiment 84 Interpretation of the Sturt’s Meadows art 86 Conclusion 87 Resources 87 Further reading 88 References 88 4 Stratigraphy 97 Jane Balme and Alistair Paterson Introduction 97 What is Stratigraphy? 97 Why do Archaeologists Study Stratification? 98 How do Different Layers Occur in Archaeological Sites? 98 Principles (or laws) of stratigraphy 99 Sources of disturbance 102 vii CONTENTS Excavation and Stratigraphy 104 Recording Stratification 105 The Harris Matrix: interpreting the spatial record 106 Creating Analytical Units 109 Case Study: Sos Höyük 110 Conclusion 114 Acknowledgments 114 Resources 114 Further reading 114 References 115 5 Absolute Dating 117 Simon Holdaway Introduction 117 Chronometry 118 Sidereal methods 122 Isotopic methods 122 Radiogenic methods 122 Chemical and biological methods 124 Geomorphic methods 124 Limits on Chronometric Techniques 125 Maximum limits 125 Minimum limits 127 Limits on radiogenic techniques 128 Precision 128 From Age Estimates to Chronology 129 Temporal Resolution and Behavioral Variation 132 Fidelity and resolution 132 Time averaging 133 Multiple Scales of Time 137 Case Study 1: Assessing Different Scales of Time at Bone Cave 140 Case Study 2: Time Perspectivism in Practice, Stud Creek, Western New South Wales 143 Geomorphological history 144 Heat-retainer hearths 147 Stud Creek chronology 151 viii CONTENTS Conclusion 152 Acknowledgments 152 Further reading 152 References 153 6 An Introduction to Stone Artifact Analysis 159 Chris Clarkson and Sue O’Connor Introduction 159 An overview 159 Why study stone artifacts? 159 What are stone artifacts? 160 How are they made? 161 How do you recognize different techniques? 171 Analyzing Stone Artifacts 176 Research design 176 What are you trying to find out? 176 How do you build your questions? 176 Are some analyses more meaningful than others? 176 Classifying an assemblage of stone artifacts 176 Why classify? 176 Are there rules of classification? 177 What are the different types of classification? 177 What are the different methods of classification? 179 How do you choose between classificatory systems? 180 How do you build your own classification? 181 Choosing attributes to record and measure 181 What attributes should you choose? 181 What is a “basic” analysis? 182 Managing data 182 How should you record your attributes? 182 When do you need to use statistics and what statistics are most useful? 182 Measuring extent of reduction 183 Why measure reduction? 183 How do you measure core reduction? 183 How do you measure flake reduction? 187 How can you explore blank selection? 188 How do you measure retouch? 191 Dealing with difficult assemblages 193 What if most of your artifacts are broken or damaged? 193 What should you do if you can’t tell artifacts from natural rocks? 195 ix CONTENTS