ArabTihaeC: r adle ofI slam Studies in the Geography, People and Politics of the Peninsula with an account of Islam and Mission-work BY REVS.. M .Z WEMERF,. R.G.S. INTRODUCTION BY REV. JAMES S. DENNIS, D.D. m [ffl] NEWY ORK CHICAGO TORONTO Fleming H. Revell Company Pl.i.bliosfEh vearnsg eLliitce�r!a ture DEDICATED TO The "Student Volunteeefr Asm"e rica IN MEMOROYF Copyright, 19<)0 THE TWO AMERICAN VOLUNTEERS WHO LAID DOWN THEIR by FLEMING H. REVELL COMPANY LIVES FOR ARABIA �),TER J. ZWEMER AND GEORGE E. STONE IntroduNcottoery HE T author of this instructive volume is in the direct line of missionary pioneers to the Moslem world. He fol­ lows Raymond Lull, Henry Martyn, Ion Keith-Falconer, and Bishop French, and, with his friend and comrade the Rev. James Cantine, now stands in the shining line of succession at the close of a decade of patient and brave service at that lonely outpost on the shores of the Persian Gulf. Others have followed in their footsteps, until the Arabian Mission, the adopted child of the Reformed Church in America, is at present a compact and resolute group of men and women ?,t And Jesus said unto him: This day is salvation come to this house, for­ the gates of Arabia, waiting on God's will, and intent first of asmuch as he also is a son of Abraham. For the Son of Man is come to all upon fulfilling in the spirit of obedience to the Master the seek and to save that which was losL-LuKE xix. 9, 10, duty assigned them. These ten years of quiet, unflinching service have been full of prayer, observation, study, and wistful· survey of 'the great task, while at the same time every opportunity has been im­ proved to gain a foothold, to plant a standard, to overcome a prejudice, to sow a seed, and to win a soul. The fruits of this intelligent and conscientious effort to grasp the situation and plan the campaign are given to us in this valuable study of "Arabia, the Cradle of Islam." It is a missionary contribu· lion to our knowledge of the world. The author is entirely familiar with the literature of his subject. English, German, French, and Dutch authorities are at his command. The less accessible Ar�bic authors are easily within his reach, and he brings from those mysterious gardens of spices into his clear, straightforward narrative, the local coloring and fragrance, as well as the indisputable witness of original medieval sources. The ethnological, geographical, archeological, commercial, and l 2 INTRODUCTORY }()TE INTRODUCTORY NOTE 3 political information of the. descriptive ..:hapters brings to our. direct, and vigorous prose his irreversible verdict that Chris­ hands a valuable and readable summary of facts, in a form tianity being true, Islam is 11ot, Buddhism is not, Hinduism is which is highly useful, and will be sure to quicken an intelligent not. interest in one of the great religious and international problems There he stands ; he is not afraid 0£ the issue. His Master of ollr times. is the one supreme and infallible judge, who can pronounce an His study of Islam is from the missionary standpoint, but unerring verdict concerning the truth of any religion. He has this does not necessarily mean that it is unfair, or unhistorical, ventured to bear witness to the truth which his Master has or lacking in scholarly acumen. Purely scientific and aca­ taught him. Let no one lightly question the value of the con­ demic study of an ethnic religion is one method of approaching tribution he makes to the comparative study of religion. it. It can thus be classified, labelled, and put upon the shelf in The spirit in which our author has written of Islam is marked the historical museum of the world's religions, and the result by fairness, sobriety, and discrimination, and yet there is no has a value which none will dispute. This, however, is not the mistaking the verdict of one who speaks with an authority only, or indeed the most serviceable, way of examining, esti­ which is based upon exceptional opportunities of observation� mating and passing a final judgment upon a religious system. close study of literary sources and moral results, and undoubted Such study must be comparative; it·must have some standard honesty of purpose. of value; it must not discard acknowledged tests of excellence; It mi.y not be &Ill of place to note the hearty, outspoken it must make use of certain measurements of capacity and satisfaction with which the author regards the extension of power; it must be pursued in the light of practical ethics, and British authority over the long sweep of the Arabian coast line. be in harmony with the great fundamental laws of religious ex­ His admiration and delight can· only be fully understood by perience and spiritual progress which have controlled thus far one who has been a resident in the East, and has felt the blight the regenerative processes of human development. of Moslem rule, and its utter hopelessness as an instrument of The missionary in forming his final judgment inevitably com­ progress. pares the religion he studies with the religion he teaches. He Let this book have its hour of quiet opportunity, and it will need not do this in any unkind, or bitter, or abusive spirit. broaden our vision, enlarge our knowledge, and deepen our in­ On the contrary, he may do it with a supreme desire to un­ terest in themes which will never lose their hold upon the at­ cover delusion, and make clear the truth as it has been given tention of thoughtful inen. to him by the Great Teacher. He may make a generous and sympathetic allowance for the influence of local environment, ]IJIES S, DENNIS. he m"ay trace in an. historic spirit the natural evolution of a religious system, he may give all due credit to every worthy element and every pleasing characteristic therein, he may re­ gard its symbols with respect, and also with all charity and con­ sideration the leaders and guides whom the people reverence; yet his own judgment may still be inflexible, his own allegiance unfaltering, and he may_feel it to be his duty to put into plain, Preface THERE are indications that Arabia will not always remain in its long patriarchal sleep and that there is a future in store for the Arab. Politics, civilization and missions have all begun to touch the hem of the peninsula and it seems that soon there will be one more land-or at least portions of it-to add to "the white man's burden." History is making in the Per­ sian Gulf, and Yemen will not forever remain, a tempting prize, -untouched. The spiritual burden of Arabia is the Moham­ medan religion and it is in its cradle we can best see the fruits of Islam. We have sought to trace the spiriti)al as well as the physical geography of Arabia by showing how Islam grew out of the earlier Judaism, Sabeani sm and Christianity. The purpose of this book is especially to call attention to Arabia and the need of missionary work for the Arabs. There is no dearth of literature on Arabia, the Arabs and Islam, but most of the books on Arabia are antiquated or inaccessible to the ordinary reader ; some of the best are out of print. The only modern work in English, which gives a general idea of the whole peninsula is Bayard Taylor's somewhat juvenile " In German there is the scholarly com­ Travels in Arabia." pilation of Albrecht Zehm, "A rabie und die Araber, seit hundtrf/ ahren," which is generally accurate, but is rather dull reading and has neither illustrations nor maps. From the missionary standp oint there are no books on Arabia save the biographies of Keith-Falconer, Bishop French and Kami! Abd­ ul-Messialt. This fact together with the friends of the author urged their united plea for a book on this "Neglected, Peninsula," jts peo� pie, religion and missions. We have written from a missionary 5 6 PREFACE viewpoint, so that the book has certain features which are in­ tended specially for those who are interested in the missionary enterprise. But that enterprise has now so large a place in Table of Contents niodem thought that· no student of secular history can afford to remain in ignorance of movements. its PAGE Some of the chapters are necessarily based largely on the I books by other travellers, but if any object to quotation marks, THE NEGLECTED PENINsuLA 17 we would remind them that Emerson's writings are said to Arabia the centre of Moslem world-Its boundarie5-::-The coast :.....Physical chliracteristics-Climate-Water-supply-Geology contain three thousand three hundred and ninety three quota­ ..;;_T he' Wadys-Mountains-Deserts. tions from eight hundreli and sixty-eight individuals ! 'The material for . the book was collected during nine years of resi­ II dence in Arabia. It was for the most part put into its present THE GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS OF ARABIA 25 form at Babrein during the summer of 1899, in the midst of Natural divisions-Provillce�olitical geography-Important many outside duties and distractions. flora. and fauna-Population. I wish especially to acknowledge my indebtedness to W. A. III Buchanan, Esq., of London, who gave the initiative for the preparation of this volume and to my friend Mr. D. L. Pierson· THE HOLY LAND OF AB.ABIA-MEcCA JO Its boundaries-Sacredness-European travellers-Jiddab-Its who has generously undertaken the entire oversight of its pub­ bombardment-The pilgrimage-Mecca-Itslocation-Water­ lication. supply-91>vemoi-Tbe Kaaba-The Black Stone-Zemzem The system for the spelling of Arabic names in the text fol­ -Duty of pi1grimage-The pilgrims-The day of sacrifice­ lows in general that of the Royal Geographical $ociety. This The certificate-Character of Meccans-Temporary marriages -Superstitions-Mishkash-Schools of Mecca-Course of system consists, in brief, in three rules : ( 1) words made famil­ study.' iar by long usage remain unchanged; (•) vowels are pronounced IV as in Italian and consonants as in English; (3) no redundant leners are written and all those written are pronounced. THE HOLY-LAND OF ARABIA-MEDINA 45 Taif-�ea.tben idols-The road to Medina-Sanctity of Medina We send these chapters on their errand, and hope that espe­ -The prophet's mosque-Was Mo�med buried there?­ cially the later ones may reach the hearts of the Student Volun­ The five tombs-Prayer for Fatima-Living on the pi1grims teers for foreign missions to whom they are dedicated; we -Character of people-Yanbo-Importance of Mecca to Islam.. pray also that the number of those who love the Arabs· and labor for their enlightenment and redemption may increase. V S.M .Z WEMER. ADEN AND AN INLAND JOURNEY SJ Balirein, Ara/Jia. The gateways to Arabia Felix-Aden-Its ancient history-For­ tifications-Tanks-Divisions-Population-Joumey inland­ Wabat-The vegetation of Yemen-A Turkish customhouse -The stomi in the wady-Taiz-The story of the books. 7 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS 9 VI PAGE XI PAGE YEMEN: THE SWITZERLAND OF ARABIA 62 THE EASTERN THRESHOLD OF ARABIA , 110 The Jews of Yemen-From Taiz to Ibb and Yerim-Beiuty The province of Hassa-K.atar-The Route inland-Ojeir- of scenery-Climate-Ali's footprint-Damar-Sana-Com­ , Journey to Hofhoof-The two curses of agriculture-The merce and manufactures-Roda-From Sana to the C0?-5t­ capital of Hassa-Plan of the town-Its manufactures-Curi- The terraces of Yemen-Suk-el Khamis-Men?kba Bajil­ ous coinage-The government of Hassa-Katif-lts un­ Hodeidah. hcalthfulness. XII VII THE RIVER.-COUNTRY AND THE DATE-PALM • 119 THE UNEXPLORED REGIONS OF HADRAMAUT 7a. The cradle of the race--,...Boundaries of Mesopotamia-The Von Wrede's travels-Halhy-Mr. and Mrs. Bent's journeys-:... Tigris-Euphrates-Meadow lands-The palms-Their beauty Makalla.-Incense-trade-The castles and palaces Shibam­ -Fruitfulness-Usefulness-Varieties of dates-Value­ Shehr and its ruler-Hadr.unaut and the Indian arcllipelago. Other products-Population-Provinces and districts-The government. VIII XIII THE CITIES AND VILLAGES OF TURKISH-ARABIA • 128 MUSCAT AND THE CoASTLANDS 01' OMAN 78 Kuweit-Fao-Aboo Hassib--Busrah-The river navigation­ Boundaries-Population -Government -Muscat-Heat-The A journey-Kurna-Ezra's tomb-Amara-The tomb of the forts--;;The to}Vn-Tl\e gardens-Trade-The coast of Oman -The pirate-coast-The Batina-Sib, Barka,,Sohar-From barber-The arch of Ctesiphon-Bagdad, past and present­ Muscat to Ras-el-Had-Sur-Carter's exploration-The ?tlah­ Population-Trade:--Kelleks. rah and Gharah tribes-Frankincense. XIV IX • A JOURNEY DOWN THE EUPHRATES 136 Journey to Hillah-The route-Kerbela-Down the Euphrates THE LAND OF THE CAMEL 88 -Diwaniyeh_:_T he soldier-guard-Amphibious Arabs-Sa� " The mother of the camel" -Importance of the camel to Arabia mawa-Ya Ali, Ya Hassan!-Nasariya-Ur-The end of our -Tradition as to creation-Species-The dromedary-An il­ journey_;_T he future of Mesopotamia. lustratJon of design-froducts of the camel-Characteristics-­ xv The interior of Oman-Chief authorities-Fertility-Caravan� routes-Peter Zwemer's joumey-Jebel Achdar. THE INTERIOR-KNOWN AND UNKNOWN 143 What it includes-Its four divisions-( I) 11 The empty quarter" -Ignorance of this part of Arabia-(2 )N ejran-The Dauasir• X valley and other wadys-Halevy's travels-Aflaj-Tbe Ro,. THE PEARL ISLANDS OF THE GULF 97 man eKpedition to Nejran-(3) Nejd-Its proper limits-The Ancient history of Bahrein-Origin of nam.e-Population.­ zephyrs of Nejd-Soil-Vegetation-Animals-The ostrich­ Menamah-The freSh-water springs-The pearl-fisheries­ The horse-The chief authorities on this part of Arabia­ Superstitions about pearls-Value and export-Method of div­ The population of Nejd-The character of government-In­ ing-Boats-Apparatus-Dangers to the divers-Mother-of­ tercourse with Mesopotamia-Chief citieS-Hail-Riad-(4) pearl-Other manufactures-Ruins at Ali-The climate-Po­ Jebel Shammar-The Bedouin-tribes-Division-Character litical history-English j>rotectfon. and customs-Robbery-Universal poverty. -10 TAJJI.E OF <XJNTENTS TABLE OF <XJNTENTS 11 xx XVI PAGE PAGE 11THE TIME OF IGNORANCE". • 158 THE RULERS OF OMAN • 203 Why so-called-The golde� age of literature-The influence of Oman ruler&-Seyid Said-Feysul bin Turki-The rebels take Christianity and Judaism-Tribal constitution of society­ Muscat-Arab warfare-European diplomacy. Commerce-fo.cense-Foreign invasions-Political commotion -The condition of women-Female infanticide-The -veil­ XXI Rights of women-Marriilge choice-Polygamy and Polyan­ dry-Two kinds of marriage-Did Islam elevate woman?­ THE 8TOllY OF THE TURKS IN ARABIA . 206 Writing in "the days of ignorance "-Poetry-Mohammed's Hejaz-The Sberifs _of Mecca-Othman Pasha-Threats to opinion of poets-The religions-Sabeanism-The Pantheon assassinate him-Turkish troops in Asir-Losses-The con­ at Mecca-Jinn-Totemism-Tattooing-Names of idols­ quest of Yemen-Turkish rule-Rebellions-The rebellion of Allab-Decay of idplat,y-Tbe Hanifs. 1892-Bagdad, Busrah and Hassa-Taxes.-Tbe Turks and Bedouins.-The army-�haracter of rule; XVII XXII Isu..u:· 1N rrs CB.ADLE-THE MOSLD!'s Gon 16g Different views-Carlyle-Hugh Broughton-Borrowed ele­ BRITISH INFLUENCE IN ARABIA •2 18 ments of Islam-The God of Islam-Palgrave's portrait-At­ British possessions-Aden-Socotra-Perim-Kuria Muria islands tributes of God-Wliat God is no_t-Analysis of lslam-Bor­ -Bahrein-Her naval supremacy-In the Gulf-German rowed elements of Islam. testimony-Survey of coasts.-Telegraph and posts-Slave­ trade-Commerce-British India S. N. Co.-Gulftrade-The XVIII rupee-Trade of Aden-Overland railway-Treaties with THE PB.oPREI' AND HIS BooK 179 tribes-The Trucial League-England in Oman-Aden­ The prophet of Islam-Birth of MohamJJ1ed-His environment­ Makalla.-Method of "protection "-British consuls and :Factors that helped to make the man-Political, religious lUld agents. family fact0r-Khadijah-Mohammed's appearance, mind and character-His transgression of law-His sensuality-His XXIII mUrdcrs-Expeditions-Mohammed. as he became through PRESENT Potmcs IN ARABIA • 233 tradition-His glories, favor and power as an intercessor­ Hejaz-Future of Yemen-France in Oman-Russia in the Gulf How Moslems regard the Koran-Its character accoroing to -The Tigris-Euphrates Valley-The greater kingdom-God's Dr. Post, Goethe and N0ldeke-Its names-Contents-Origin providence in history. -Recension-Its beauties-Its defects-Its omissions. XIX XXIV THE ARABIC LANGUAGE , 238 THE WAHABI RULERS AND REFORMERS • 191 Wide extent�Its character-Renan's opinion-The Semitic The story of past century-The Wahabis-Characterofteaching family-Their original home-The two theories-Table of the -The preacher and the_ sword-Taking of Mecca and Me-­ group-The influence of the Koran on the Arabic language­ clina-Kerbela-Mohammed Ali-The Hejaz campaign­ Koran Arabic not pure-Origin of alphabet-Cufic-Ca­ Ghalye-Turk.ish cruelty-English expedition-Peace-The ligraphy as an art-Difficulty and beauty of Arabic speech-Its Wababi dynasty_:_Abdullab bin Rashid-Rise of Nejd king­ purity-Literature-Difficulty of pronunciation-Of its iam­ dom-Cha.taeter of rule-H:.ail _conquers Riad. mar-Keith Falconer's testimony. 12, TA/JlE OF CXJNTENTS TA/JlE OF CXJNTENTS 13 PAGE XXV PAGE Collyridians _;_ Theophilus -Nejran converts -Martyrs - THE LJTER.ATURE Oil TUE ARABS • 25 I· Abraha, king of Yemen-Marching to Mecca-The defeat­ Division of its literature-The seven poems-The Koran-Al End of early Christianity-The record of the rocks. Hariri-Its beauty and variety-Arabic poetry in general­ Influence of Arabic and other languages-English influence XXX on the Arabic-The Arabic Bible and .a Christian literature. THE DAWN OF MODERN ARABIAN MtSSIONS • 314 Raymo:0.d Lull-Heniy Martyn-Why the Moslem world was XXVI neglected-Claudius Buchanan's sermon-The Syrian mis� THE AllAB • 258 sions-Doctor Van Dyck-His Bible translation-Henry Origin of tribes-Two theories-Yemenite and Maldite-The Martyn, the pioneer-His Arabian assistant-Visit to Muscat­ caravan routes-Bedouins and townsmen-Clark's classification His Arabic version-Anthony N. Groves-Dr. John Wilson of -Genealogies-Tribal nam�s-Character of Arabs-Influence Bombay-The Bible Society-Opening of doors-Major-Gen­ of neighbors-Their physique-Their aristocracy-Intolerance eral Haig's journeys-Arabia open-Dr. and Mrs. Harpur and -Speech-Oaths-Robbery-Privilege of sanctuary-Gener­ the C. M. S.-A call to prayer-Bagdad occupied-The pres­ osity-Blood-revenge-Childhood-Fireside talk-Marriage ent work-Missionary journeys to the Jews-William Lethaby among Bedouins-Position of women-Four witnCsscs­ at K.erak-The North Africa mission among the nomads­ Do,ughty-Burckhardt-Lady Ann Blunt-Hurgronje­ . Samuel Van Tassel-The Christian Missionary Alliance­ Woman despised-The kinds of dwelling-Tents and houses Mackay's appeal from Uganda-The response. -Dress-The staple foods-Coffee, tobacco and locusts. XXXI XXVII ION KmTff FALCONER ANt> THE ADEN MISSION • 331 ARABIAN ARTS AND SCIENCES • 274 Keith Falconer's character-Education-At Cambridge-Mission Music of the Arabs,:_War chants-Instruments of music-Songs �His II eccentricity "-Leipzig and Assiut-How he -Kaseedahs in Yemen-Mecca chants-Science of AtAar and came· to go tO Arabia-His first visit-Plans for the interior­ Wasm-Tracking camels-Tribal marks-Medical knowledge His second voyage to Aden-Dwelling-Illness-Death­ of the Arabs -Diseases-Remedies-Ap rescription -The The influence of his life-The mission at Sheikh Othman, Koran's panacea-A Mecca M. D.-Amulets--Superstitions, ,xxxu XXVIII BJSHOl" Ji'BJtNCH THE VETERAN MISSIONARY TO MUSCAT • 344 THE STAR-WORSHIPPERS OF MESOPOTAMIA • 285- •The most distinguished of all C. M. S. mission4ries"-Re­ Where they live-Their peculiar religion-Their langnage­ sponds to Mackay's appeal-His character-His letters from Literature-A prayer-meeting ·of the Star Worshippers­ Muscat-His plans for the interior-Death-The grave. Strange ceremonies-The dogmas-Gnostic ideas-Priest­ hood-Baptisms-Babylonian origin. XXXIII THE AMERICAN ARABIAN MISSION • 35J XXIX Its origin-The student band-The first plan-La.id before the EARLY CHRISTIANITY lN ARABIA • church-Organization-The Missionary Hymn J-ames Can­ JOO Pentecost-Paul's journey-The Arabs and the Romans-Chris- tine-Syria--Cairo-Aden-Kainil-Journeys of exploration · tian tribes of the North-Mavia-Naaman's edict-Chris­ to the Gulf and Sana-Busrah-Dr. C. E. Riggs-Death of tianity in Yemen-Ch�T?,Ct�r of Oriental Christianity-The Kanlil-Opposition.from government-Home administration- TABLE OF <XJNT_ENTS Bahrein occupied-Lines of work-Muscat- Journey through Yemen- The mission transferred to the Reformed Church­ Troubles at Muscat and Busrah-Dr. Worrall-Journeys in Oman-Scripture-sales-First-fruits-Reinforcements. List of Illustrations XXXIV IN Peter John Zwemer-George E. Stone. PAGE MEMORIAM A TYPICAL. ARAB OF YEMEN • • • • • • • . • • • • • • Fro.ntispiect XXXV VIEW OF MECCA AND THE SACRED MOSQUE •• PROBLEMS OF fflE ARABIAN FIELD • • 374 THE REPUTED TOMB OF EVE AT JIDDAH • • : } Facing 17 .. The general ptoblem of missions to Moslems-The Arabian MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMS AT MECCA • , • • • 30 problem-What part of Arabia is accessible-Turkish Arabia THE SACRED WELL OF ZEMZEM AT MECCA • • : } -Its accessibility-Limitations- The -accessibility of inde­ PILGRIMS AROUND THE KAABA IN THE SACRED MOSQUE " pendent Arabia-Climate-Moslem fanaticism- English in­ AT MECCA. • . • • • • • • • • , • • .. 34 fluence-Illiteracy- The BedouinS-The present missionary THE MECCA CERTIFICATE-A PASSPORT TO HEAVEN . • 40 force-Iuttst eirn adequacy-Moeft whodso rk-Medical CHRISTIAN COINS USED AS AN AMULET BY MECCAN WOMEN 43 missions-Scbools--Work for women-Colportagc-Preach­ A WOMAN OF MECCA • • • • • • , • • • • • ing-Controversy- What should be its character-The atti­ J\ M�CCAN WOMU IN HER Barn.AL COSTUME • • • • • }Facing 44 .. tude of the Moslem mind-Fate of converts-Thoughtless and , 'fRAv'EI. UNG IN SOUTHERN ARABIA • • • • • • • • • } 56 thoughtful Moslems-The Bible as dynamite-The right men THE KEITH FALCONER MEMORIAL .CHURCH IN ADEN' for the work. AN' ARAIIIAN COMPASS • • • • , • • • 71 XXXVI A CASI'LE IN HADRAMAUT . • • • • • • • • 77 THE OUTLOOK FOR MISSIONS TO MoSLEMS • 391 T1ut HAB.BOR AND CASTLE AT MuscAT. • • • }Facing 8o Two views of work for Moslems-Christian fatalism-Results in READY FOR A CAMEL RIDE IN THE DESERT , , Moslem lands-India-Persia-Constantinople-Sumatra and A �RANCH OF THE INCENSE TREE , • • • • • 87 Java-Other signs of progress-The significance of persecution TENOOF FROM. THE EAST • . • • • • • • • • 95 -Character of converts-Promise of God for victory over THE VILLAGE OF MENAMAH, BAHREIN ISLANDS, , Islam-Christ or Mohammed_'.Missionary promises of the A BAHRElN HARBOR BOAT , • • • } FIU'ing 100 Old Testament-The Rock of Jesus' Sonship--Special promises A DATE ORCHARD NEAR BUSRAH • • • • • } " 12' for Arabia-Hagar and Ishmael- The prayer of Abraham­ DATES GROWING ON A DATE-PALM , • • • .. The sign of the covenant with Ishmael-The third revelation THE TOMB OF EZRA ON THE TIGRIS RIVER • } 132 of God's love-The sons of Ishmael-Kedar and Neba.ioth­ RUINS OF THE ARCH OF CTF.SIPHON NEAR BAGDAD The promises-Seba and Sheba-The spiritual boundaries of . A PUBLIC-KHAN IN TURKISH-ARABIA, '. • • } •• 140 Arabia-Da Costa's poem-Faith like Abraham-0 that Ish­ ARAB PILGRIMS ON BOARD A RIVER STEAMER mael might live before thee. FOUR. FLAGS THAT RULE ARABIA 217 APPE..N DIX I-CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE • • 409 CUFIC CHARACTERS • • • , • • • • • , • 243 MODER� COPYBOOK ARABIC • • • . • • , } .. II-TRIBES OF NORTH ARABIA • �13 , 011.DINAR.Y UNV0WELLED ARABIC WRmNG, 244 III-AN ARABIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY • 414 ;, .MOGUBI ARABIC OF NORTH ARABIA 245 INDEX 15 • 427