APPREHENSION AND ARGUMENT STUDIES IN THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY OF MIND Volume 3 Editors Henrik Lagerlund, Uppsala University, Sweden Mikko Yrjönsuuri, Academy of Finland and University of Jyväskylä, Finland Board of Consulting Editors Lilli Alanen, Uppsala University, Sweden Joël Biard, University of Tours, France Michael Della Rocca, Yale University, U.S.A. Eyjólfur Emilsson, University of Oslo, Norway André Gombay, University of Toronto, Canada Patricia Kitcher, Columbia University, U.S.A. Simo Knuuttila, University of Helsinki, Finland Béatrice M. Longuenesse, New York University, U.S.A. Calvin Normore, University of California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. Aims and Scope The aim of the series is to foster historical research into the nature of think- ing and the workings of the mind. The volumes address topics of intellectual history that would nowadays fall into different disciplines like philosophy of mind, philosophical psychology, artificial intelligence, cognitive science, etc. The monographs and collections of articles in the series are historically reli- able as well as congenial to the contemporary reader. They provide original insights into central contemporary problems by looking at them in historical contexts, addressing issues like consciousness, representation and intention- ality, mind and body, the self and the emotions. In this way, the books open up new perspectives for research on these topics. APPREHENSION AND ARGUMENT Ancient Theories of Starting Points for Knowledge by MIIRA TUOMINEN University of Helsinki, Finland A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 10: 1-4020-5042-9 (HB) ISBN 13: 978-1-4020-5042-8 (HB) ISBN 10: 1-4020-5043-7 (e-book) ISBN 13: 978-1-4020-5043-5 (e-book) Published by Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. www.springer.com Printed on acid-free paper Cover art: Albrecht Dürer, Unterweisung der Messung, University of Helsinki Library, The National Library of Finland. All Rights Reserved © 2007 Springer No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ix Abbreviations and a Note on the Texts xi Introduction 1 The Topic, Scope, and Aim of this Book 2 The Structure of the Book 6 A Brief Survey of the Existing Literature 12 PART I:PLATONIC-ARISTOTELIAN TRADITION 1. Theories of Argumentation 17 1.1 Plato 17 Arguments as Socratic Discussions 18 The Method of Hypothesis 22 Collection and Division 32 Philosophical Cosmology 35 1.2 Aristotle 37 1.2.1 Aristotle’s Inheritance from the Academy 38 Dialectical Syllogisms 38 Induction 59 Conceptual Analysis 65 1.2.2 Science 68 Being Better Known 69 Premises of Scientific Proofs 72 Proofs and Definitions 86 Do the Sciences Have Something in Common? 89 Remarks on Aristotle’s Scientific Practice 96 Knowledge of the Premises 102 1.3 Later Developments 112 1.3.1 Some Developments in Platonism 113 Galen 113 Alcinous 118 Plotinus 122 v vi TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.3.2 Greek Commentaries on Aristotle 126 Alexander of Aphrodisias 127 Themistius 138 Philoponus 142 Simplicius 149 2. Intellectual Apprehension 155 2.1 The Connection between the Two Contexts 155 2.2 Perception 162 2.2.1 Receptive Theories 163 Causation through Medium 164 2.2.2 Projective Theories 168 2.2.3 Co-affection: Plotinus 170 2.2.4 Perceptual Realism and the Reliability of Perceptions 171 Plato: Realism without Reliability? 172 Aristotle’s Realism: Perceptibility as a Modalised Notion 173 2.3 From Perception to Intellection 175 2.3.1 Intelligible Forms 176 Plato 176 Aristotle 181 2.3.2 Later Developments 194 Galen, Alcinous, Plotinus 194 Alexander, Themistius, Philoponus 199 PART II:ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES 3. Hellenistic Philosophy 219 3.1 Is there a Starting Point for Knowledge? 222 The Notion of a Criterion of Truth 222 Perceptions and Cognitive Impressions 228 Preconceptions 238 The Problem of Vagueness 251 3.2 Is There a Transition from the Evident to the Non-Evident? 254 3.2.1 Epicurus 255 Witnessing and Counter-Witnessing 255 The Method of Elimination and the Method of Similarity 260 3.2.2 Stoics and Sextus 265 Indemonstrable Argument Forms 265 TABLE OF CONTENTS vii Proofs 266 Arguments Involving a Non-Necessary Conditional 269 Rejection of Proof 271 3.3 What is Left for the Sceptic? 272 Pyrrhonian Scepticism and Non-Dogmatic Beliefs 273 3.4 What Does a Doctor Know? – Medical Empiricism as an Alternative Approach to Scientific Knowledge 276 The Sorites Argument in Medicine 276 Empiricist Expertise 281 Conclusion 289 Bibliography 295 Index of Names 313 Index Locorum 317 Index of Topics 325 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This book started living many years ago when, as an undergraduate student, I wrote a few small essays on Aristotle’s Posterior Analytics. In its present form, it has emerged from a doctoral dissertation at the University of Helsinki, which was supervised by Prof. Simo Knuuttila, to whom I wish to express my deepest gratitude. The thesis was preliminarily examined by Docent Marja-Liisa Kakkuri-Knuuttila and Prof. Juha Sihvola; both of them have also helped me later. Prof. Frans de Haas offered highly constructive criticism at the last stages of my thesis, and also acted as my opponent. I had the opportunity to carry out my work at the Department of Philosophy at the University of Helsinki, and I was supported financially by the Finnish Cultural Foundation, the Oskar Öflund foundation, and the University of Helsinki. I would like to thank once again all those who helped me during the process of completing my thesis. As for those who have helped me turn the thesis into a book, I would like to thank, first of all, Prof. Martha Nussbaum for inviting me to work as a vis- iting scholar at the University of Chicago, and for helping me during that period. I am also deeply grateful to Prof. Elizabeth Asmis and Prof. Rachel Barney for comments, criticism and encouragement. Of my colleagues, I wish first to thank PhD Håvard Løkke for generously commenting on pre- vious versions of the manuscript. I am also grateful to Hallvard Fossheim, Prof. Monte Johnson, Prof. Taneli Kukkonen, PhD Pauliina Remes, PhD Mikko Yrjönsuuri and my fellow Galenites at the University of Chicago, for comments, discussions and support. My warm thanks to Prof. Mark Shackleton and Ranya Paasonen for polishing the English of my text, and to José Filipe da Silva, Vili Lähteenmäki and Mika Perälä for helping me proof- read the manuscript. Between completing the dissertation and completing the book, I have been working at the History of Mind Unit at the University of Helsinki, financed by the Academy of Finland. I am grateful to all the leaders ix x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS and members of this project, as well as to the Department of Philosophy. The Academy of Finland also supported me financially during my stay in Chicago. Finally, I wish to thank all those who have simply been there for me. Helsinki 30.1.2006 Miira Tuominen