http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/ Research Commons at the University of Waikato Copyright Statement: The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). The thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use:  Any use you make of these documents or images must be for research or private study purposes only, and you may not make them available to any other person.  Authors control the copyright of their thesis. You will recognise the author’s right to be identified as the author of the thesis, and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate.  You will obtain the author’s permission before publishing any material from the thesis. The language environment of primary school aged children in Tonga A case study of 4 children. A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Education at The University of Waikato by Talaifina Monalisa Puniani 2017 ABSTRACT The Ministry of Education and Training in Tonga’s direction for its language policy has recently changed and at present, all the local schools are expected to implement effectively the new language policy that was in place in the early 2000’s. Under the UNESCO and the World Bank’s influence, the new language policy articulates the teaching of children from an early age in their local vernacular to establish literacy in the first language before the introduction of English at Class 3 of the primary school level. This study was conducted in light of this new policy, to explore from a primary school in Tonga the language environments that children experience to identify whether or not the language input they receive is sufficient for balanced bilingualism to be supported. The study also was a way to explore children’s understanding of their language environment and choices. It was a way to help out parents and teachers understand the kind of language environment that fosters balanced bilinguals. The scope of this study, being a Master’s thesis, allowed me to use a case study for this research. Four participants from a primary school in Tonga was used for collection of the data. The research took on a qualitative approach with data being generated using two main methods: field observations (both in the classroom and at home) and a focus group interview. The data generated from these methods captured what was observed in the participant’s natural environment setting (i.e. the classroom and at home) which included what language is used, who said it and to whom, the activities that were done during the use of language (i.e. what the participants did). The data also provided the childrens’ own views of their language choices without the influence of adults to think for them. It was apparent from the research that although the language policy in place was affirmative of students being bilinguals, there was a huge gap that student participants were experiencing with their language input especially with the use of English and with being given the opportunities to use language to ensure that they have learnt and mastered the input they have received. Both the observations and the focus group identified the dominance of the teacher in the classroom and the very few chances of i input for students especially on their L2 and especially the opportunity to practice and use both the Tongan and the English language. The research therefore has indicated the fact that while teachers are indeed following part of the prescription of the language policy in Tonga in terms of exposing and establishing a firm foundation on the children at an early age to Tongan, they are not following it with respect to providing English input. The research hence suggests some implications not just for teachers but for the education system to address because there is a crucial need for all parties involved (administration, teachers, parents and students) to work collaboratively to identify and to address and improve the quantity and the quality of language input students receive. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to take this opportunity to express my heartfelt and sincere thanks to the following people who have made it possible for me to make it to the end of my journey as a student at Waikato University. First and foremost, I would like to thank the ONE and only true God that exists in this earth for his grace and unending love and kindness and his guidance during this journey. Without him, I would not have had the courage to complete this paper. To my parents, Mosese Fainga and ‘Ilaise Puniani. I have nothing but love for you both and gratitude that you are both still well to support me during this journey. Time spent away from you two was utter pain but thank God for the support you have given me to keep going. Thank you also to all my brothers and sisters and their families: Brother Sione, Tema and Fainga Si’i (Otara), Sister Salote, Jonathan, Genevieve and Fonokimoana (Singapore), Sister Mohulamu, ‘Eneasi, Tevita, ‘Iunisi and Telefoni (Otara), Sister Kulia, Laukau, Sean, Sione, Tevita, Matamoana, ‘Ilaise Jr and Misinale (Hamilton), Brother ‘Okaleni, Vili Si’i, Sonya, Natalya, Gulio, Vaioleti, Dylan (Manurewa), Sister Feangai Folau, Star, Kesa, Kato and ‘Etu (Mangere). Aunty Kaluseti Sevele and your family. Second mother: Po’alo’i Vaima’ali Tavake (Puke), Brother Toutai Tavake, Brother Toetu’u, Lini, Po’alo’i, Keleise and Lisa (Puke); and Brother: Va’emolo and his family (United States of America). Thank you all for 2 and a half years of support here in New Zealand while me and my son struggled to complete my studies. I do not know how to thank you all enough but pray that God will bless you all abundantly for your love and support. To my supervisor, Associate Professor Margaret Franken. I do not have enough words to express how grateful I am for your untiring efforts in supporting me with your professional guidance during the course of this study. I have learnt from you and have grown in my passion and love for language simply because I have learnt from the best. Thank you from the bottom of my heart and to your daughter as well for the help and love shown during this study. May God, bless you abundantly with hope that you will continue to support me should I need advice regarding issues with language in my country. iii To the staff of the scholarship office for NZAID Programme at Waikato International office: Deone Taylor, Thomas McDonald, Rachael Elliot, Catriona Chyde, and Huy Vu. Your support has immensely helped me and made things easy for me while I was at Waikato. I really appreciate all the help and the encouragement that you have given me during the course of my study. To the Chief Education Officer of the Ministry of Education and Training (Tonga), Mr. Claude Tupou, Lucy Moala Mafi and all the staff of the head office; Principal and the staff of the participating school and staff from the scholarship office in Tonga. Thank you for supporting me and for all assistance granted to allow me to do this study in the site of the research. To the four student participants of this study and their families. This study would not have been completed without your contribution, your passion, your time, and your willingness to help me as a fellow member of our society. I am hopeful that your contribution through this study will help support language development in Tonga’s Ministry of Education in the near future. To all my relatives and friends who have taken the time to wish me well and to pray for me during this course of study, I am truly blessed and grateful for all your support. Finally, to my family. My 9-year-old son, Paea-I-Aotearoa Puniani. I thank God, every day for blessing me with you. 2 and a half years of your being by my side has made this journey bearable. Thank you, son, for enduring all the hardships for your Mum’s sake and for always being the rock that help me see what we can achieve in the future. The love of my life, Tomasi Vaea. Thank you for forever praying and giving our family to the Lord and for enduring the times spent away from us so that we will complete this journey together. To our unborn baby. Although it’s a few more weeks before we get to greet you, you have been patient with me during this journey. Thank you for bearing with Mum. From the very bottom of my heart, I dedicate this thesis to my parents, my brothers and sisters and my little family. Fakafeta’i ki he ‘Eiki ma’u ai pe pea ke ‘o ‘ona ai pe ‘a e kololia mo e Langilangi. iv CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... iii LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................................... viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background to the Tongan Language Context ........................................................................ 1 1.2 Culture and Language in Tonga............................................................................................... 2 1.3 The new national language policy in Tonga ............................................................................ 4 1.4 The present study ................................................................................................................... 6 1.5 Overview of the thesis ............................................................................................................ 8 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 9 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 9 2.2 The context of language policies in the Pacific ....................................................................... 9 2.3 Early language policies in Tonga ........................................................................................... 12 2.4 Current educational reform and national language policy in Tonga ................................... 14 2.4.1 Tonga’s current language policy .................................................................................. 15 2.5 Bilingualism ........................................................................................................................... 17 2.5.1 Subtractive bilingualism ................................................................................................ 18 2.5.2 Additive Bilingualism ..................................................................................................... 20 2.5.3 Balanced Bilingualism ................................................................................................... 21 2.5.4 Language input .............................................................................................................. 23 2.5.4.1 Quantity of input ....................................................................................................... 24 2.5.4.2 Quality of input ............................................................................................................. 25 2.5.4.3 Code Switching .............................................................................................................. 26 2.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 28 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 30 3.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 30 3.2 Research Design .......................................................................................................................... 30 3.3 Methods and procedures involved ............................................................................................. 31 3.3.1 Research site ........................................................................................................................ 31 3. 3.1. 1 Overview of the school ................................................................................................... 31 3.3.1.2 Overview of participants and the nature of their environments ..................................... 32 3.3.2 Gaining informed Consent from participants ............................................................... 35 v 3.3.3 Assuring participants of the right of withdrawal .......................................................... 36 3.3.4 Assuring participants of confidentiality and anonymity ............................................... 37 3.4 Data collection method ............................................................................................................... 37 3.4.1 Observation data: Classroom observation and Home observation ................................. 37 3.4.2: Focus group semi-structured interview .............................................................................. 38 3.5 Data Collection Procedures ......................................................................................................... 39 3.6 Methods of data analysis ............................................................................................................ 39 3.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 41 CHAPTER 4: THE FINDINGS ................................................................................................................... 42 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 42 4.2 Field Observations ...................................................................................................................... 42 4.2.1 Classroom Observations ............................................................................................... 42 4.2.2 Home Observations ...................................................................................................... 48 4.3 The Focus Group Interview ................................................................................................... 52 4.3.1 Language exposure in interactions with others ............................................................ 52 4.3.2 Language exposure in the media .................................................................................. 54 4.3.3 Language preference ................................................................................................... 55 4.4. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 57 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................................... 59 5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 59 5.2 Discussion of analysis .................................................................................................................. 59 5.2.1 Quantity of input ........................................................................................................... 59 5.2.2 Quality of input ............................................................................................................. 61 5.2.3 Opportunities for children to use language - specifically English ................................ 63 5.3 Language Policy ..................................................................................................................... 64 5.4 Recommendations ................................................................................................................ 68 5.4.1 For teachers .................................................................................................................. 68 5.4.2 For parents .................................................................................................................... 69 5.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 70 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 71 6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 71 6.2 Summary of what the study found ............................................................................................. 71 6.3 Limitations to the research ................................................................................................... 71 6.3.1. Formal procedures ....................................................................................................... 71 6.3.2. School Routines ............................................................................................................ 72 6.3.3 Researcher vs expectation of parents .................................................................................. 73 vi 6.3.4 Confidentiality during research..................................................................................... 73 6.4 Implications for future research ........................................................................................... 74 6.5 Implications for future practice ............................................................................................ 75 6.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 76 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 78 APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................................... 86 Appendix A: Observation schedule ........................................................................................... 86 Appendix B: Semi-structured Interview questions for focus group (English) ........................ 87 Appendix C: Letter to the Ministry of Education and Training, Tonga. ................................. 89 Appendix D: Invitation letter and consent form for the Principal ......................................... 90 Appendix E: Invitation letter and consent form for teachers (English) ................................ 93 Appendix F: Invitation letter and consent form for parents or caregivers (English) .............. 99 Appendix G: Invitation letter and consent form for student participants (English) ............. 105 Appendix H: Table for analysis of data from the classroom observations .............................. 109 Appendix I: Table for analysis of data from home ..................................................................... 114 Appendix J: Transcript for Focus Group ........................................................................................ 116 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Percentages for guidance of language of instructions in 16 Tongan classrooms. Table 2: Weekly time allocation for use of English and Tongan as 16 Language of instructions. Table 3: Frequency of language used in different activities at school 43 Table 4: Overall Percentages of language use at school 45 Table 5: Categories of activities carried out at school 45 (curriculum related or not) Table 6: Frequency of language activities used at home 50 Table 7: Overall Percentages of language use at home 50 viii