Apocalyptic and Apocalypticism in the Poetry of E. P. Thompson Roland Boer University of Newcastle, Australia Citation: Roland Boer, “Apocalyptic and Apocalypticism in the Poetry of E. P. Thompson”, Spaces of Utopia: An Electronic Journal, no. 7, 2009, pp. 34-53 <http://ler.letras.up.pt > ISSN 1646-4729. Nothing will alter because a child is born. That was a fable. E. P. Thompson There is a little-known collection of poems by Edward Palmer Thompson called Infant and Emperor: Poems for Christmas. These poems reflect a lesser-known Thompson, one who was fascinated by the revolutionary possibilities of biblical 1 stories and Christian theology. My argument is that Thompson manages to recover the subversive edge of Christianity precisely through – and not despite – his debunking of spiritual and reverent interpretations of the Christmas stories. However, before making that argument a few preliminary comments are in order. First, it is necessary to distinguish between different senses of the terms ‘apocalyptic’ and ‘apocalypticism’: between a genre of literature, a worldview and a social movement. The word ‘apocalyptic’ functions as a noun and an adjective and refers either to a genre of literature or to a worldview. As a genre, it is well known from the Bible where there are two works that belong to the apocalyptic genre: Spaces of Utopia 7 | 2009  35 Daniel and Revelation (also known by its Greek title, the “Apocalypse”). The original Greek word, apocalypto, means the revelation of a truth, but since that truth refers (in the biblical books) to knowledge about the end of the world, the term apocalyptic came to refer to the end times. Apocalyptic also refers to a particular worldview which views the world as full of signs of the end, waiting everyday for the final cataclysm. By contrast, apocalypticism designates a movement, often gathered around a leader, which anticipates and tries to predict when the end time will come. Such movements have come and gone throughout history, but in Christian circles they have often arisen during times of social unrest and economic crisis. We may picture it this way: apocalypticism is the social movement which has an apocalyptic worldview and which reads and attempts to interpret apocalyptic literature. However, an apocalyptic worldview and apocalyptic literature are not restricted to such movements, for anyone may read such literature or take on such a worldview. For the sake of clarity in what follows I use the terms apocalyptic literature, apocalyptic worldview and apocalypticism (sometimes apocalyptic movement). Second, Thompson’s poems arose over some three decades from the 1950s onwards in response to important moments of his involvement with the nuclear disarmament movement. Thompson was, after all, not merely a scholar but also a communist activist. Only in the early 1980s did he gather them together, add one or two extras and produce a cycle of poems. Third, they come under the heavy influence of Thompson’s British hero, William Blake, who stands beside Marx within Thompson’s own pantheon (see Thompson 1978: 316). Apart from the obvious connection with Blake’s poetry, there is a strong millenarian or – preferably Spaces of Utopia 7 | 2009  36 – apocalyptic feel about these poems. In what follows then, I begin with a discussion of the poems before considering the wider question of the role of 2 apocalyptic and apocalypticsm in his work. Poetry The poems gathered under the title Infant and Emperor: Poems for Christmas 3 (1983) put various moments of the infancy stories of Jesus in touch with political events – such as the Suez invasion and the Hungarian uprising in 1956, the atrocities of the Korean War in 1951, or the activities of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament to which Thompson dedicated much of his energy. Or rather, these events were the initial reasons for writing some of the poems in the first place. They run through the well-known moments of the Christmas myth, moving through the Annunciation to Mary, the search for lodgings at the inn in Bethlehem, the birth itself, Herod’s murder of the innocents and the flight of Joseph, Mary and Jesus to Egypt. Part of the popular narrative of Christmas, they are actually an amalgam of the different stories found in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke (the only two Gospels that have such infancy narratives). Three things fascinate me about this collection. First, when faced with events of global significance, Thompson resorts to biblical language and themes, melding apocalyptic and Christmas themes. Second, he recovers a revolutionary side of Christianity that is less known than it should be. Third and somewhat paradoxically, he can do so because he doesn’t buy into the belief structure; he takes it as fable. Let me take each in turn. Spaces of Utopia 7 | 2009  37 Myriad images meet in these poems, but the major ones deal with apocalyptic themes and the dual interplay between Herod and the child of the poor. As for apocalyptic and millennial imagery, we find “fabulous holy armies” (idem, 1), Herod assuming “his hour” (Thompson 1983: 2) Leviathan, the Beast, the inherited kingdom, the perpetual threat of “Horsemen and Eagles, Emperor, Wolf and bull” (idem, 10), and the massacre of the innocents. But there are also two poems that are more explicitly apocalyptic literature – “Scenario for the Flight into Egypt” (idem, 15-17) and “Prayer for the Year’s Turning” (idem, 18-19). The first is modernised a little too much, with its “Heaven’s Angel” winging in like a bikie, directions for camera use (zoom in, fade out, extras, cut, etc.), and the “rival holy armies” using fighter-bombers, snipers and grenades, and with marines crawling up beaches and massive civilian casualties. By contrast, “Prayer for the Year’s Turning” is much better, for it weaves together the natural cycles of earth (winter solstice and spring), the hope of Christmas, and the very human threat of self- inflicted annihilation. It takes a few stanzas to realise that the various constellations and heavenly bodies – Mars, Trident, Poseidon, Polaris, Vulcan, Hades and the Neutron Way – are a mix of warlike ancient ones and the new hardware of surveillance and nuclear warfare. But the poem itself turns from heaven to earth, calling on people to watch below, to “search about the planet’s floor / For the nativity of hope”. At that moment the solstice with which the poem begins, the winter festival of Christmas (at least in the northern hemisphere), becomes the “arrested solstice” of the “boreal” Cold War. Just as the earth turns from the midst of winter’s Christmas, so also Thompson calls for a “soft apocalypse of Spring”. It Spaces of Utopia 7 | 2009  38 is of course the major drive of anti-nuclear campaign in which Thompson was involved, but with a brilliant inversion: the apocalypse of nuclear destruction must give way before a very different apocalypse that averts the former. The second group of images clusters around two symbols: Herod and the child as a sign of the poor. William Blake peers from behind much of the imagery, with its Leviathan and Beast, the gate of a woman’s womb, the seed and a 4 pervasive antinomianism. While Herod becomes the symbol of oppressors (at one point merging with the Roman Emperor [idem, 10]) who march their holy armies through history, the child becomes the symbol of hope for the oppressed “walking and walking down the centuries” with the “stubborn stamina of God’s forgotten poor” (idem, 16). Thus, in the excellent poem “Nativity” (idem, 2-3) the Christmas story becomes an “arctic legend” in which kings, angels and mysteries are all frozen … except for two who escape: one is the brutal Herod “on the high horse of power” who continues to send his soldiers and magistrates to attack, arrest and beat the innocent. The other is the child who passes “through the only gate / No magistrate may guard” and to whom the poor gather in assistance to drive back the guards so that the “seed” may grow. The oppressor and his armies may still be with us, but so is the collective hope of the poor. At times Thompson puzzles over why the birth of a child should bother the Herods of history so much. Is it the assertion of independence from Mary, the deception that hints of love, innocence and peace, as the poem “Annunciation” (idem, 1) suggests? Is it because a sleeping new-born challenges the corruptions of power, drawing upon almost forgotten qualities of human life? Spaces of Utopia 7 | 2009  39 Frost-bitten mercy, hope pulling off her gloves Crusted with ice, benighted company Numb from the cold. And even at the inn They stir the failing fire, long for release – Will no-one bring the kindling of love, A sprig of innocence, a twig of peace? (idem, 5) Is it because innocence, hope and love nurtured in a mother’s womb or arms are the first stirrings of “insurgent provinces, revolt within the State” (idem, 5 10)? Is it because the poor will not be put down to remain submissive? They – like the shepherds and wise men who have become beggars in “Visitor at the Inn” (idem, 6) – have a knack of knocking on the window while the “feast of the banknote” rages on inside. I have already slipped into my second point – the revolutionary edge of these poems – but it is difficult to separate that element too sharply from the language itself. What Thompson has done, perhaps unintentionally, is give voice to the scandal of these infancy narratives from the Gospels. Over against the syrupy celebrations of Christmas everywhere around us he has pinpointed the political challenge that lies barely concealed in these stories. Perhaps it is something that can be done these days only by one who openly confesses that he is not a believer, that the theological mumbo-jumbo makes little sense to him. So the “Holy Roman Church” becomes a deluded venture – “cross-natured Christendom” that built a “world of faith” out of Mary’s “faithlessness” (idem, 1). He is all too aware that the Church has had a very cosy relationship with the Herods of this world, 6 blessing and praying for them. In an excellent section of “Lamentation in Rama”, Spaces of Utopia 7 | 2009  40 he has heaven become an informer: “The gracious powers above / Keep watch on the little streets?” (idem, 13) This down to earth scepticism comes not a moment too soon, for at times Thompson risks getting a little too sentimental about innocent babies as symbols of love and hope during millennial crises. He is much more forceful when he reminds us that much of what the Church has made of Christmas is pious clap-trap. For example, when he takes head-on the myth of the birth of the son of God in “The Infant” (idem, 7) he suggests “some seraph goofed” and accidentally teleported “Him” as a puny baby, a “helpless sod” full of wind and unable to save himself. Or, in Mary’s “Lullaby”, she calls Jesus “Master Egotrip”, “Mister Big” and “prince of Pandemonium”: Windy boring preacher Wrapped in a shawl – Stop bawling your commandments Shut up and rest, And sleep full of the sermon Of your saviour’s breast (idem, 9). Much of it is excellent poetry and far better than his novel, The Sykaos Papers. Yet the question remains as to how Thompson pulls it off – giving the Christmas stories a radical political edge. The paradox is that whereas Thompson probably thought he was undermining the stories themselves, he has in fact brought out their radical tendencies. I have already mentioned one reason, namely that he doesn’t believe all the high claims made by the Church and can thereby dispense with the theological twaddle. Another is that he is far more interested in the human and earthly elements of the stories. Less interested in angels “coming Spaces of Utopia 7 | 2009  41 to” (Luke 1: 28) virgins, or a pious Joseph trying to do the right thing by God, shepherds directed by a singing choir of angels to visit the baby (the voices they heard turned out to be only the wind), or pagan magi following a star, or even the claim that this is the birth of the son of God, Thompson focuses on what is all too human in the stories – illicit sex, discomforts and pains of pregnancy, mothers who take no bullshit, the ever-present police, magistrates, armies and tyrants. Yet, there is a far more important reason why Thompson touched on the radicalism of stories of infant and emperor: they are nothing less than fables: Nothing will alter because a child is born. That was a fable (idem, 1). The “fable” in question is both Mary’s made-up story to cover up an “illicit” pregnancy – about a divine child announced by some angel known as Gabriel – and the birth narratives as a whole (they appear only in Matthew and Luke in rather different forms). They are indeed fables; no serious biblical scholar takes them as anything else. I would go one step further and suggest that they are necessary fables. Any political movement needs its fables, or political myths as I prefer to call them (Boer 2008). In drawing upon this stock of images, symbols and stories in order to bring out their radical possibilities, Thompson has managed to recover these stories in the form of political myth. The reason: “It was the other part that the poor understood – Herod, the Roman magistrates, the cross” (Thompson 1983: 1). Spaces of Utopia 7 | 2009  42 Apocalyptic and Apocalypticism It would seem that Thompson has brought out a radical political side to the Christmas fable, particularly through his juxtaposition of apocalyptic themes, the themes of tyrannical oppression and resistance, and their connection with political events contemporary with him. There are, however, two items that call for further comment: the nature of apocalypticism in Thompson’s work and his involvement in the nuclear disarmament movement. As far as apocalypticism is concerned – which designates a social movement and is more precise term that Thompson’s own usage of millenarianism or chiliasm – he deals with it extensively in both his treatments of the Methodists (Thompson 1966: 375-400) and William Blake (Thompson 1993). In each case his assessment shifts tellingly from one side to the other: while the Methodists exhibit an inauthentic apocalypticism, the radical Dissenters like Blake tap into an authentic version. As far as the Methodists are concerned, Thompson argues that the apocalypticism was the result of counter-revolution, especially during the Napoleonic Wars between England and France. When the revolutionary hopes of social change have been disappointed, when the police and spies and army move in to capture, imprison and execute the leaders, then where do those radical energies and hope go? They may go underground, to be nurtured until another time (the work of the radical Dissenters), or they may find expression in fervid outbursts of religious revival. This second form of apocalypticism becomes a desperate and dismal picture, especially when it is one of the reasons (in Thompson’s opinion) for the success of his loathed Methodists. With their Spaces of Utopia 7 | 2009  43 emotional meetings, damnation of sin, calls for conversion and millenarian imagery, the Wesleyans were able to give an outlet to these frustrated hopes of the poor. Thompson even hints that the Methodists preyed on the dashed hopes of social change. All of the outward manifestations of the Methodist meetings – groaning, crying out, fainting, shouting, weeping, paroxysms and even mass hysteria – become a sign of the psychic process of counter-revolution, the 7 “chiliasm of despair” (Thompson 1966: 388) and not revolution itself. And so he designates it an inauthentic millenarianism in contrast to the Jacobin agitations of the late 18th century. But when he comes to radical Dissenters like Blake he changes his tune. Now he resists dismissing apocalypticism as the raving of lunatics (a dismissal one hears all too often today in “learned” circles). So we find him countering the caricature of chiliasm as the terrain of disturbed individuals, suffering from paranoia and megalomania, by arguing that it is a language, an imagery of the poor and oppressed. Or rather, while there may indeed be the occasional deranged individual (or Methodist), the biblical imagery of the Whore of Babylon, the Beast and the New Jerusalem has consistently provided the language of opposition by minority groups (Thompson 1966: 48-50). It takes little guesswork to notice that such language is drawn directly from 8 the Bible, especially the two explicitly apocalyptic books, Daniel and Revelation. Not a little has been written in biblical studies on the matter. Technically, apocalypse means a revelation (apocalyptein), usually of what is to come in history with a specific focus on the end of the world, or at least the end of oppression.