APHRODITE and ARES: LOVE & WAR Olympian Lovers Throughout Greek myth Aphrodite and Ares are consistently paired together as companions, either lovers or close sibling allies. In Roman mythology they are Venus and Mars, the deities who preside over the Empire, as the parents of both founders of Rome, Aeneas and Romulus. Aeneas, the son of Aphrodite, fled the destruction of Troy and fathered a new line of kings who would eventually rule Rome. Romulus the son of Mars later founded Rome on the banks of the Tiber. Hence Venus and Mars are partners in the foundation of the golden city of Rome. Aphrodite and Ares are deeply attached passionate lovers or siblings. In the Odyssey they are caught in a golden web woven by Hephaestus who crafted the fine filament in order to entrap his wife Aphrodite in bed with Ares. Their relationship is erotic. However in Homer’s earlier epic, the Iliad their relationship is depicted as less magnetic, yet just as close; Aphrodite refers to him in this epic as ‘dear brother’. Yet when we imagine these gods we think of them as eternal lovers, sometimes married, other times not. Aphrodite is also mother to three of Ares’ children: Harmonia, Phobos and Deimos. Their union is also credited with creating Eros, a personification of the magnetic power of love, which is born out of their passion. APHRODITE beautiful Aphrodite is who I shall sing, she who has all the high locations of Cyprus, the sea place 1 -The Second Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite painting: The Birth of Venus William Adolphe Bouguereau 1879 2 Aphrodite is the goddess of love, sexuality and beauty whose cult was universal in the ancient world. Her origins have their roots in the Near East. From the Sumerian tradition she inherits aspects of Innana, the Queen of Heaven; in the Assyrian tradition she was called Ishtar while in Phoenicia she was known as Astarte. The Babylonians referred to her as Mylitta and associated her with the evening and the morning star. From this point forward the goddess was always connected to the bright planet Venus, which hovers near the eastern and western horizons. Venus Hesperus was the evening star in the land of the West, while Venus Phosphorus was the bright, morning star visible before the Sun arose. Aphrodite’s earliest cult of worship in Greece was at Paphos in Cyprus. Her cult image and worship were probably brought to the island by the seafaring Phoenicians. Homer often refers to her as ‘the lady of Kypros’ throughout the Iliad. Hesiod describes the first land to gaze upon the goddess as the island of Kythera, at the foot of the Peloponnese. Here Aphrodite rose out of the sea foam and drifted on the sea to Cyprus. The Phoenicians also brought her to Corinth where 7th Century BCE pottery sherds, with the goddess name of Astarte on them, have been discovered. Hesiod’s names for the goddess are all connected to her birth: Aphrodite is derived from aphros, meaning sea foam, hence she who is born of the foam, Kyprogene is the ‘woman of Cyprus’ referring not only to the initial cult worship of the goddess on the island but the place she relocated to after her ascension out of the sea. Finally Kythereia reminds us of her birth out of the Aegean in one of bays of Kythera. Aphrodite may have been amalgamated with other indigenous local deities, however throughout Greek myth she clearly retains her Eastern heritage. While her cult may have been imported, with her first entry point as the island of Cyprus, she certainly was moulded into a uniquely Greek goddess, a goddess who often conflicted with the emerging Greek culture and tradition. Later in Roman times she was known as Venus and the Romans claimed her as their patroness since she was mother to their ancient founder, Aeneas. Vestiges of Aphrodite’s archaic traditions continued to influence the Greek goddess. To put Aphrodite’s sexuality and freedom in a contemporary classical context we can reflect on the life of an Athenian woman at the flowering of the classical period in the 5th C. Women did not vote and were physically separated from the men. The domain of the woman remained at the back of the house. She rarely enjoyed the freedom of movement in the agora or outside the house unless accompanied by a man. Athenian etiquette suggested that ‘a woman who travels outside the house must be of such an age that onlookers might ask, not whose wife she is, but whose mother’.3 The exceptions may have been the Hetaera, a woman intellectually skilled and free to choose her own life, a woman protected by Aphrodite. If we look at the other Greek goddesses who were part of the Olympian pantheon their roles were often well defined, having jurisdiction over specific spheres of influence. These spheres of influence were also defined in terms of a male or the masculine, whereas Aphrodite does not define herself in these terms, except perhaps as a lover of men. Demeter carried the role of the mother, the Goddess of the grain; Hera while Queen of Heaven remained in her role as wife to Zeus; Athena the virgin goddess of city life was the daughter of Zeus, and Artemis another virgin goddess was defined as sister to Apollo. Aphrodite is our image of the goddess of sexual desire, love and beauty who defines herself outside the spheres of the other goddesses, and within her own sphere. In the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite the poet suggests there are three goddess Aphrodite cannot influence. But there are three minds that she is unable to persuade, unable, that is, to seduce: there is the daughter of Zeus who carries the aegis, Athena with her gleaming eyes…. The second one that Aphrodite, lover of laughter, cannot subdue in love is noisy Artemis with her golden arrows……. And third, The things that Aphrodite does are not Pleasing to that venerable virgin, Hestia4 The poet suggests it is the three virgin goddesses who are not overwhelmed by the power of Aphrodite’s passions. However her ability to constellate desire is a force even the other gods cannot control, a passion that is often destructive and life altering. Hence she was often marginalised or manipulated for her magical seductive powers. Athena and Hera convince her to use her power to have Medea fall in love with Jason. And in the Iliad Hera asks Aphrodite for the loan of her magic girdle in order to seduce her husband, Zeus. Aphrodite’s magic girdle symbolises her erotic power, which is able to seduce gods and heroes into her passionate domain. Aphrodite’s genealogy is not consistent in Homer and Hesiod. According to Homer Aphrodite is the daughter of Zeus and Dione. This is confirmed in the Odyssey when Hephaestus threatens to take back the bridal gifts he gave her father Zeus after he has caught his adulterous wife in the net with Ares. In Homeric tradition Zeus was the supreme Olympian and therefore every god was under his jurisdiction. However Hesiod in the Theogony portrays a very different and primitive birth myth5. When Cronus had severed Ouranus’ testicles he threw them into the sea. From this act the sea bore Aphrodite. Therefore the great goddess of sexual love was fathered by the severed genitals of the sky god and brought into creation out of the womb of the sea, ostensibly a goddess without parents. Aphrodite represents a force that is not easily parented. The double tradition of Aphrodite’s birth is also consistent with many other dual themes in myths of the goddess. Her duality is also reflected in her names of Aphrodite Urania, the celestial goddess, and Aphrodite Pandemos, the goddess of all the people. Aphrodite’s Entry into Epic In Greek myth the face of the feminine becomes more defined; the warrior and strategic sides belong to Athena, the mothering and nurturing side rests with Demeter, while Artemis carries the wild and instinctual sides. While we will look at many stories involving Aphrodite perhaps we should start with her entry into epic to appreciate the difficulty her sexuality and erotic nature may have presented to a rising patriarchal and rationalistic society. In Homeric epic it is evident that Aphrodite’s erotic power to seduce the hero away from the battlefield is at great odds with the heroic nature of the warrior. Hence Aphrodite enters epic disempowered. Homer, aligned with the hero, portrays Aphrodite as the goddess who seduces the hero away from his tasks. Aphrodite’s name being linked with aphros or the sea-foam is a constant reminder of Hesiod’s version of her potent and chaotic birth. Homer, placing her lineage under Zeus, makes an interesting comment on changing social mores, placing Aphrodite’s erotic power under the divine order of Zeus. Sexual desire or ‘the lust that leads to disaster’, as well as the instincts of love and pleasure, are now placed in the dominion of the sky god Zeus. In the Homeric poem the Iliad Aphrodite is ridiculed and denigrated and also favours the Trojans, not the Greeks. Why is Aphrodite a threat to the Homeric poets? Her sphere is the bedroom, not the battlefield and her power seduces the hero. In the Iliad she rescues her son, Aeneas, and her protégé, Paris, from the battlefield. Her ability to magnetise the sexual desire of the hero leads him away from the battlefield (today the sports field, the boardroom or the parliament rather than the battlefield). She is the power of the feminine who initiates the masculine into the sphere outside mother. Her passions draw out an irrational side in the hero. Unlike mother, she makes no promises of fidelity. She initiates the hero into his erotic and primal desires. Yet in Homer we glimpse the beginning of her sphere being judged profane, as her sexuality is dangerous to the emerging hero culture. Her dual birth also represents the schism that occurred throughout the development of Greek society splitting the profane (instinctual, primal) off from the sacred (cultured, restrained). Aphrodite was always a dual goddess; her Eastern traditions sometimes portrayed her as bisexual. In Greece she became Aphrodite Urania, the ethereal and sublime one, born of heaven and who represented heavenly and spiritual love, the sacred. She was also known as Pandemos, Aphrodite of the common people, physical and sensual love or the profane. Heavenly and earthy love became split into polar opposites. In the Odyssey Aphrodite plays no role except for a story that is told of her by a minstrel and poet. Here the story of the triangle of Aphrodite, Ares and Hephaestus is told to the guests’ great amusement. In the Odyssey Aphrodite is married to Hephaestus the handicapped god who ensnares his wife and Ares together in his marital bed. In the Voyage of the Argo Aphrodite helps Athena and Hera by having Medea fall in love with Jason. In the Aeneid, Venus is the protectress of her son, Aeneas who she helps guide to Latium. Finally in the Golden Ass she is the terrible stepmother to her pregnant daughter-in-law, Psyche. She sets four impossible tasks for Psyche hoping she will fail. But her first entry into epic is in the Iliad. The epiphanies depicted throughout the course of the Iliad effectively allow Homer to contrast the divine and human sphere. The pantheon of gods interjects morality, conscience and instinct into the epic. Their divine appearances also affirm that destiny is not always directed or controlled by heroic willpower, but is something god-given and greater than any individual. The presence of the gods in the Iliad, alongside the human drama of war, is a powerful juxtaposition of the world of the mortal with the world of the divine. And the realm of war is also uncomfortable for the goddess of love. The focus for much of the Iliad is on battle. The gods are clearly divided as to which camp they favour, either the Trojan or the Achaiain (Greek) one. Being a battle epic, Homer decides how the gods who are not aligned with war will be portrayed. Aphrodite is a goddess associated with erotic love, not war, and Homer’s depiction of her in the Iliad highlights the division between the battlefield and the household or the spheres of the masculine and the feminine, and what is heroic and what is not. Aphrodite’s treatment by Homer serves as a commentary on both the morality of the poet and his contemporary time as well as influencing the way Aphrodite will be portrayed in subsequent epic and literature. Homer’s geneogram of the Olympian family places Zeus as the eldest sibling, not the youngest, and rearranges the parentage of Aphrodite. In Homer, Aphrodite is now the daughter of Zeus. Her mother is Dione, a daughter of the Titans, Oceanus and Thethys, whose name is ‘a feminine form of the name Zeus’.6 Homer has placed Aphrodite’s domain under Zeus, a domain that is ordered and hierarchical. Hesiod depicts Aphrodite, an older deity born the generation before Zeus, as a much more potent and primal goddess than the one portrayed in the Iliad. Did Homer wish to rearrange the myth ‘for the down-playing of carnal extremes’7? Hesiod allows for Aphrodite’s more chaotic, exotic and erotic nature. Homer’s Aphrodite and her passionate realm are now under the control of Zeus and order, therefore while she still evokes chaos, she is not outside the realm of Zeus’ control. In other myths, Aphrodite is represented as a potent and independent goddess but in Homer she is subjected to ridicule and disrespect. Aphrodite is scolded by Diomedes and Zeus, deceived and ridiculed by Hera, physically wounded by Diomedes, and insulted and assaulted by Athena. Why Homer chooses to devalue Aphrodite in this way could stem from various reasons. Aphrodite’s sexual power and magnetism may have been too threatening to a moral poet in changing times. As a goddess who migrated from the East8, introducing her into the western tradition of the time may have meant rearranging her lineage to be subject to a more rational god. Erotic desire, Aphrodite’s realm, may be safer if placed in the jurisdiction of the sky god Zeus. Her Eastern heritage may also have included magic and healing, arts, which Homer virtually censors from the Iliad. A remnant of these arts is suggested when Aphrodite embalms Hector’s corpse with ‘rosy immortal oil’ and keeps the dogs from ravaging the body. Aphrodite’s ‘magic’ is also referred to in reference to her girdle. The poet also seems to be occupied with a heroic epic of war, and heroes are insular and separate, not caught up in the grips of the love goddess’ spell. Aphrodite’s more exotic side needs to be quelled. One of the visible ways that Homer depicts his struggle with Aphrodite is in her relationship to other gods and mortals in the Iliad. Aphrodite’s character, according to Homer, emerges through her relationships with Paris, Dione, Helen and others. Aphrodite and Paris Aphrodite’s ‘down playing’ is interesting given that the mythic roots of the Trojan conflict reach back to the judgement of Paris, a judgment that Aphrodite won with her charm, beguile and promises. The title ‘fairest’ was awarded to her rather than Athena or Hera, by the judge Paris. Aphrodite was obliged to fulfil her promise to Paris who was to receive the beautiful Helen as his prize. This reward however was not achieved through heroism or kleos (glory), but through the manipulation of the goddess, Aphrodite. Homeric heroes achieve their recognition through their skill as warriors, not through judging beauty contests. Paris’ alignment with the goddess Aphrodite places his world at odds with the heroic world. It is Aphrodite who manipulates the abduction of Helen from her Spartan home and her husband, Menelaus, and relocates her to Troy with Paris. This powerful saga is the reason why the Greek armies are assembled below the walls of Troy: to rescue Helen from the grip of the Trojans. The story of the judgement of Paris is however only alluded to in a few lines of the epic poem, described as ‘the lust that led to disaster’. Aphrodite’s ‘lust’ that compels Paris has no place in heroic epic. Even Hector, Paris’ brother and Trojan hero, judges his brother’s desire as anti-heroic. For Homer, shame and lust are often synonymous and are both aspects of possession by Aphrodite.9 Lust is anti- heroic and therefore shameful to heroic men. Aphrodite also serves the poet by allowing a contrast to exist between his characters Paris and Diomedes. Paris, who is identified with the goddess and her realm, is antithetical to the hero Diomedes, who by wounding Aphrodite shows no reverence for the goddess. Diomedes as a symbol of ‘the masculine sphere’10 confronts Aphrodite on the battlefield. The poet, through both the mortal and divine voices of Diomedes and Zeus, lets the audience know that this is not where the goddess belongs. After he wounds Aphrodite, Diomedes says: Give way, daughter of Zeus, from the fighting and the terror. Is it not then enough that you lead astray women without warcraft? Yet, if still you must haunt the fighting, I think that now you will shiver even when you hear some other talking of battles.’11 And Zeus too rebukes her participation in the battle: ‘No, my child, not for you are the works of warfare. Rather concern yourself only with the lovely secrets of marriage, while all this shall be left to Athene and sudden Ares.’12 The lines are drawn. Through both hero and god, the poet has defined Aphrodite’s role away from the battlefield, a sphere where Homer says she does not belong. Earlier in the poem, Aphrodite had rescued Paris from being choked and dragged away by Menelaus. She rescues him from the dangers of battle placing him safely in his ‘perfumed bedchamber’. Aphrodite also commanded Helen to Paris’ bed. Against Helen’s own wishes, she recanted. However, Helen still managed to express her disgust to Paris: ‘Oh, how I wish you had died there beaten down by the stronger man’. Paris, using the seductive powers of Aphrodite, finally charms Helen into submission. In this scene, Paris is anti-heroic; passion and desire has led him away from the sphere of battle into Aphrodite’s sphere of lovemaking. The poet uses Paris as an example of how the erotic passions of Aphrodite can take the hero away from the task of battle. Homer points to the dangerous side of Aphrodite and Helen, her mortal embodiment. The danger lies in the chaotic realm of lust and desire that lead the warrior away from his heroic labour. Hector, unlike Paris, is a hero who is able to delineate the boundary between the battlefield and the household, not being seduced or enchanted away from battle by Aphrodite. However, Helen enchants Paris and therefore he falls under the spell of Aphrodite. Subtly, Homer also reminds us of Aphrodite’s chaotic side by referring to her in line 5:330 as ‘the lady of Kypros’. This reference links her to her Cyprian cult and earlier heritage, which the poet, as suggested previously, has ignored.13 Diomedes, as the Homeric hero, and Paris, as Aphrodite’s protégé, contrast the realms of war and love, the battlefield and the polis, as well as the world of the masculine and the world of the feminine. Homer uses Aphrodite as a device to clarify the boundaries between these worlds. Aphrodite and Dione Dione has virtually no role in the Iliad except as Aphrodite’s mother, yet her presence in one scene gives the poet another chance to trivialise Aphrodite. Dione is a comforting mother ‘who gathered her daughter into the arms’ fold’ after Aphrodite had been wounded. In her mother’s presence Aphrodite regresses to a young and whining girl. The poet uses this opportunity to depict Aphrodite as a child who flees back to Olympus and the protection of her mother when things do not go her way. Dione questions Aphrodite about which Olympian god has injured her. This question is the identical question Zeus poses to Artemis later in the epic. While Artemis has been assaulted by Hera, Aphrodite had been wounded by a mere mortal. Both Artemis and Ares, who also support the Trojan side, seek refuge with Zeus when wounded, whereas Aphrodite seeks the feminine realm of her mother for comfort. The poet has once again contained the realm of Aphrodite in a sphere away from battle. Dione tries to comfort her daughter by reciting the names of other gods who have been wounded by mortals. Ares, Hera and Hades are on the list; both Ares and Hades have been wounded by the greatest hero, Heracles. The scene ends with Zeus reiterating Aphrodite’s sphere to be the ‘lovely secrets of marriage’, not war. Athena is the image of the feminine that Zeus supports for the ‘works of warfare’. Athena’s strategy and metis is valued throughout the epic by the poet unlike her Homeric half-sister, Aphrodite. Aphrodite and Thetis Aphrodite and Thetis have much in common yet are depicted by Homer very differently. Each is a persuasive goddess and a mother of heroes in the war. Thetis is mother to the Achaian hero, Achilles, while Aphrodite is mother to the Trojan hero, Aeneas. Both the fathers of these heroes are mortal and inferior to the goddesses. While they are referred to in the Iliad, the fathers play no part in the epic. Both goddesses have significantly influenced the course of events that shape the Iliad. Aphrodite’s role in Helen’s abduction, the core event that precipitates the war, is not part of the epic. The power Aphrodite has to influence the course of events is not acknowledged. Thetis, on the other hand, plays a visible role in the epic’s plot. She secures a promise from Zeus that places the Greeks under Agamemnon, at risk. Without Achilles, Thetis’ son, the Greek army is to suffer. Her power is acknowledged. Thetis protects her son and intervenes on his behalf, yet never intercedes while he is on the battlefield. Aphrodite, however, rescues both Paris and Aeneas from danger and even transports Paris back to his own bedroom. Unlike Thetis, Aphrodite crosses the boundary between the battlefield (the sphere of the hero) and the bedroom (the sphere of sexual desire). In saving her son and her protégé from death, Aphrodite also robs them of their heroism. Whether consciously intended or not, Aphrodite’s role on the battlefield in contrast to Thetis portrays the realm of Aphrodite as oppositional to the realm of the hero. Even though Thetis is the ‘lesser goddess’14, she is more nobly treated than Aphrodite. Both these goddesses have an element of power over Zeus. Thetis had previously rescued Zeus aligning her with Zeus and the preservation of his ordered world. She now uses this leverage to obtain a promise from Zeus to fulfil her son’s wishes. Aphrodite’s power ‘with which you overwhelm mortal men, and all the immortals’15 is her love charms personified as a girdle, a magical zone. This does not belong in the ordered realm of Zeus. Unlike Thetis, Aphrodite does not use her power to get what she wants, but gives the magic away to Hera. Hera supports the Greeks, and therefore is a rival in the war. Aphrodite is duped into unwittingly aiding Hera in her schemes against the Trojans. Aphrodite, who supports the Trojans, is depicted as naive and subordinate to Hera, who champions the Greeks. Aphrodite and Ares More fun is had at Aphrodite’s expense in her relationship with Ares. While Homer in the Iliad does not define their relationship, he certainly does in the Odyssey. In the Odyssey Aphrodite is married to Hephaestus16, an unusual partner for the love goddess and certainly no physical match for her lover, Ares. Homer introduces the extra marital affair of Ares and Aphrodite having the bard Demodokos singing the comic tale to Odysseus. The tale is a humorous interlude but when judged moralistically it is ‘a song that so scandalised ancient commentators that, along with some of their modern counterparts, they wanted to athetise it from the text’.17 Perhaps part of the scandal is that epic is dealing with sex, not war. In the tale, Hephaestus conspires to trap Aphrodite and Ares in his own bed with a webbed net constructed to bind the lovers so ‘neither of them could stir a limb or get up’.18 The woven web that ensnares the lovers is a clever image employed by Homer. While weaving is the domain of Athena, threads that bind are a reminder of the three Fates, the Moirae. The audience may be subtly reminded that cunning Athena, goddess of weaving, would not allow herself to be trapped in such a way. The poet suggests that lust, belonging to Aphrodite, is no match for Athena’s wisdom. Or if the web refers to the Fates, then is it destined that this type of lust be exposed? The scene is amusing not only to the audience listening to the poet, but also to other male gods who are summoned to the bed side to view the entrapped pair. In an interesting twist Homer depicts Poseidon as the only god not amused by the shenanigans. Homer is not clear on why, except that in some references Poseidon’s name has been suggested as meaning ‘husband of the goddess Da’.19 Clearly in this scene he respects the sanctity of marriage and is not engrossed by the goddess of love. The relationship of Ares and Aphrodite is not explicit in the Iliad; at one point Aphrodite refers to him as ‘beloved brother’. They however are companions and aids to each other. When Aphrodite is wounded by Diomedes, Ares lends her his ‘gold-bridled horses’ to take her to Olympus and her mother. Ares himself is later wounded. When Ares is flattened by Athena, Aphrodite appears and drags him away from the skirmish. Hera in noticing this insults Aphrodite by referring to her as a ‘dogfly’ and encourages Athena to block their escape. Athena punches Aphrodite in the breasts causing both Ares and Aphrodite to fall, lying ‘sprawled on the generous Earth’. No other gods are subject to such humiliation in the epic. Ares and Aphrodite serve as an interesting polarity in that the god of war is companion to the goddess of love. Ares is referred to throughout the Iliad as violent, man slaughtering, bloodstained, and huge and bellowing. But perhaps the best indication of the Homeric view of Ares comes from Zeus. Ares has come to Zeus to complain of Athena’s aiding Diomedes to wound him. Zeus responds by naming him the ‘most hateful of all gods’.20 The war god Ares is not well represented in this epic. Athena as more logical and rational is favoured as a patroness of war. She exclaims to Ares, ‘you did not think even this time how much stronger I can claim I am than you’. Athena triumphs over both Ares and Aphrodite, a reminder that metis is superior to lust and that rationalism and strategy triumph over chaos. Ares is portrayed as irrational with a lust for battle and therefore is a good mate in Homeric epic for Aphrodite who is also chaotic and lustful. Helen, Briseis & Cassandra Helen is the mortal embodiment of Aphrodite and the goddess is her patroness. Two other women are likened to Aphrodite in the Iliad: Briseis and Cassandra. Each of these women is linked through their similar roles as captives. While Helen is protected by the Trojans she is still a captive. Briseis is captive throughout the epic and Cassandra, as the audience will know, will be taken as a captive of Agamemnon after the sack of Troy.21 Homer, through these three women who are all compared to Aphrodite, may be suggesting that the realm of Aphrodite is the spoil of the hero. All three women are captives of heroes, which places them, and perhaps Aphrodite, under the jurisdiction of the hero. Perhaps unconsciously the poet is suggesting this would be best. Captives are also foreigners. In likening Aphrodite to these women, Homer may be reminding us that she is foreign and therefore dangerous. Aphrodite was a foreign goddess and to the heroic psyche, an enchanting yet dangerous force. Captives do not partake in the war and the audience is reminded that Aphrodite’s realm, once again, is excluded from the battlefield. Aphrodite’s entry into epic epitomises the beginning of her devaluation that reaches its height throughout the Christian era. The relationship between the poet and Aphrodite is uneasy: the epic tradition progressively removed the most carnal aspects of the Olympian gods and goddesses- leaving certain physical activities, sex in particular, conveniently vague in accord with evidently long standing public taste22 Sexual desire, lust, and passions that inevitably lead to chaos are dangerous to Homer who is a voice of the shifting times. Rationalism and order are prized over instinct and disorder, the heroic over the householder. Aphrodite represents these denigrated instinctual feelings that lead the hero away from his labours. As regent of this domain, then, she is also denigrated. She is ridiculed, devalued and marginalised. The poet has clearly stated that her feminine sphere must be separate from the heroic sphere and that her influence must be placed under the ordered world of Zeus. Aphrodite crosses the boundaries between the battlefield and the bedroom and needs to be controlled. Like her Hellenic son, Eros, she gradually loses her power through epic. Homer begins the tradition of trivialising her, as has been shown, in the Iliad and continues this in the Odyssey. But Homer’s influence continues into later epic and literature. Apollonius of Rhodes in The Voyage of the Argo and even Apuleius in The Golden Ass continue to caricature Aphrodite. Homer’s depiction of Aphrodite in the Iliad helps illuminate the potential attitudes of the ancient Greeks towards her domain of love, lust and sexuality. Through Homer, Aphrodite’s sphere becomes placed under the ordered worldview of the supreme sky god, Zeus. However not all poets and mythmakers followed Homer's lead. Many praised the transcendent sphere of Aphrodite. Perhaps an archaic voice who best portrayed the sublime influence of the goddess was Sappho in her Hymn to Aphrodite. Sappho became a muse for generations of erotic poets who followed. The Judgement of Paris The Trojan conflict described in the Iliad was ignited after Helen was seduced by Paris and carried away from her home in Sparta to Troy. With Aphrodite as guide and protectress, Paris was able to charm Helen away from her homeland. As we have read, beautiful Helen is the prize Aphrodite awarded to Paris for choosing her as the fairest over the other goddesses, Athena and Hera. However Aphrodite’s schemes ignite a major conflict, which erupted into the Trojan War and the ultimate destruction of Troy. Paris was one of the many children of the Trojan dynasty of King Priam and Queen Hecabe. On the day he was born he was exposed on Mount Ida behind Troy, as his mother had experienced a frightening vision that her new child would be the ruin of Troy. However Paris survived, maturing into a handsome young man known for his skill of judgement. Hence Zeus chose him to resolve the argument, which had broken out amongst the three goddesses. The divine conflict arose at the great wedding feast of Peleus and Thetis, the parents-to-be of the great hero, Achilles. This last great wedding celebration when all the gods and goddesses were invited to join with mortals took place on Mount Pelion. All the gods and goddesses except one, Eris, the goddess of strife were there. Furious for not being invited Eris arrived in the midst of the wedding feast. In her hand she held a golden apple that had ‘to the fairest’ engraved on it. She rolled the golden apple down the length of the banquet table and it stopped in the midst of the goddesses, Aphrodite, Hera and Athena. Each goddess claimed the title of the fairest as hers. To arbitrate the conflict Zeus chooses the Trojan prince, Paris to judge who was the fairest. To convince him to choose her, Hera offered him great wealth and power; Athena offered him heroic status and finally Aphrodite offered him the hand in marriage of the most beautiful woman alive, Helen. Paris chose relationship over wealth, power or fame. However, there would be dire consequences for Helen was already married to Menelaus, the king of Sparta. Menelaus had won the hand of Helen over many other suitors who had sworn allegiance to him should anything happen to Helen. Aphrodite’s realm evokes the chaos of passion, abandonment and betrayal. When Helen is snatched from her home on the Peloponnese and brought to Troy in Asia Minor, Menelaus solicits the help of his brother Agamemnon who gathers together a great Greek army to sail to Troy in order to reclaim Helen. The Greek fleet sails to Troy and engages in a ten-year battle with Troy. Troy is destroyed and the Trojan dynasty ends. Paris is killed and Helen is ‘rescued’ and taken back to her homeland. Under Aphrodite’s spell we may be obsessed by the love of beauty, and blinded by the possibility of love and relationship. The Trojan tale reveals how Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, can often ignite passions and emotions ending in disaster. When Troy is destroyed, only a handful of Trojans are spared. One of these is Aeneas, the son of Aphrodite by Anchises. Aeneas escapes the ruins of Troy carrying sacred relics from his homeland. Eventually after heroic trials and adventures Aeneas arrives in Latium and founds the seminal site for Rome. Aeneas is one of the dual founders of Rome. And Venus (Aphrodite) as his mother is given a place of honour in Rome, the newly found Troy, another Mecca of culture and beauty. Sons and Lovers Aphrodite’s realm continuously intersects with the masculine. Her mythic nature is revealed through many of her relationships with her male counterparts, as follows: Aeneas Aphrodite seduced the Trojan Anchises while he was tending his cattle on Mount Ida. ‘And when she saw him, Aphrodite, lover of laughter, she loved him, and a terrifying desire seized her heart.’23 In order to seduce him, Aphrodite denied she was a goddess. However after lovemaking Aphrodite revealed she was the great goddess and extracted a promise from Anchises that he would honour their secret. Later when drunk he revealed that he had lain with a goddess. For transgressing his promise, Zeus crippled him with the blow of a thunderbolt. However their union produced the Trojan hero Aeneas, and first founder of Rome. When Troy was destroyed at the end of the Trojan conflict over Helen, Aeneas received the protection of his mother Aphrodite and was able to escape the decimated Troy with his father and his son rescuing the sacred objects from Troy. Virgil describes his mythic journey from Troy to Latium in the epic The Aeneid. Aeneas was a favourite of the gods and known for his piety. Eros We have already met Eros as one of the primal elements of creation. In Hesiod’s Theogony he is her attendant after her birth. It is during the archaic period when Eros is first depicted by Simonides as the son of Aphrodite and Ares. From this point on Eros becomes aligned with Aphrodite in epic and poetry, as her son and partner in match making. Myth aligns Eros, the erotic power of love, with Aphrodite and together they conspire to bring lovers together or often unleash monstrous feelings of erotic desire. Later this erotic power is differentiated: Anteros becomes love not returned while Himeros is desire. Plato praises Eros in the Symposium whose power he suggests should be honoured by great temples and sacrifices. Eros and Aphrodite are always linked throughout later antiquity. In the 2nd Century CE, Apuleius tells the story of Psyche and Eros. Psyche is the mortal counterpoint to Aphrodite as she is revered and worshipped for her beauty. Jealous of Psyche, Venus conspires to destroy her by arranging a monstrous marriage. However her own son Eros falls in love with the young beauty and takes her as his lover without the knowledge of his mother. When Venus becomes aware of the liaison and Psyche’s love for her son she sets four impossible tasks for the young girl hoping to destroy her spirit. Each of these tasks represents a heroic labour for the unconscious young woman. Her greatest challenge is to descend into the underworld to retrieve the beauty box from Persephone. Psyche succeeds in her labours and Venus becomes her mother-in-law. Hephaestus In the Odyssey Aphrodite’s husband is Hephaestus. His disappointed mother Hera had hurled the smith-god out of Olympus. However when the goddess realised her son was a master jeweller and craftsman she wanted him reinstated to Olympus to create beautiful jewellery and armour for the gods. Hephaestus’ condition to return to Olympus was to marry the beautiful goddess. Hephaestus has been crippled from birth, his feet twisted back to front. Walking with a rolling gait he was the brunt of the other gods’ jeers and jokes. Hence the two are an unusual pairing, reminiscent of the