AP Physics – Nuclear Physics Nuclear physics takes in a lot of territory and the range of things it effects is enormous – from saving the lives of cancer victims to its use in weapons of mass destruction. There’s a lot to love and hate in the nuke world. Now another thing. This handout is like really thick and has lots of good stuff in it. Much of it you do not need to know for the AP Physics test. So why is the Physics Kahuna wasting your valuable time with this extraneous stuff? Well, because if only the stuff you needed to know was in here, then nuclear physics would not be complete, wouldn’t make a whole lot of sense, and would be pretty confusing. Plus you would be shortchanged in a big-time way. The Physics Kahuna, because of his enormous respect for the Advanced Placement Student, refuses to do this to you. So, throughout, the document, the Physics Kahuna will make a notation on the stuff you need to know and also point out the stuff that you do not need to know. Is that fair or what? Review of Atomic Theory Basics: (Here’s important stuff you need to know.) Let’s do a quick review about atoms. Nuclear physics deals with atoms, right? Anyway, the basic idea is that ordinary matter is made up of collections of atoms. There are around 90 different kinds of atoms that can be found on our beloved planet. Each of the different types is called an element. Elements are substances that cannot be broken down into other substances. So far this is nothing more than a basic chemistry review, ain’t it? Well, it does get better. Wait and see. Each atom has a nucleus, which contains most of its mass. In this nucleus are the nucleons – the protons and neutrons (which you no doubt fondly remember from your electrical studies). Surrounding the nucleus is the electron cloud – this is where the electrons go about their enormously busy little electron thing. There is one electron for every proton in an atom. When the 501 number of electrons and protons is different, you don’t have an atom anymore, you have gots you one of them ions. Remember them? Anyway, just what the electrons are doing in an atom is pretty complicated – we’ll deal with them later when we get to quantum mechanics. The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom. This information can be easily found from the periodic table (you will, no doubt, recall that elements are organized by atomic number in the periodic table). A periodic table is included at the end of this section of the text. You also have one available in your CCHS planner. Z is the symbol for the atomic number.  In 1993, Binney & Smith introduced sixteen more colors, all named by consumers: Asparagus, Cerise, Denim, Granny Smith Apple, Macaroni and Cheese, Mauvelous, Pacific Blue, Purple Mountain's Majesty, Razzmatazz, Robin's Egg Blue, Shamrock, Tickle Me Pink, Timber Wolf, Tropical Rain Forest, Tumbleweed, and Wisteria.  Washington Irving used the pseudonym Geoffrey Crayon when he published The Sketch-Book, a collection of short stories and essays, including The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Rip Van Winkle.  On average, children between the ages of two and seven color 28 minutes every day.  The average child in the United States will wear down 730 crayons by his or her tenth birthday.  The scent of Crayola crayons is among the twenty most recognizable to American adults.  The Crayola brand name is recognized by 99 percent of all Americans.  Red barns and black tires got their colors thanks in part to two of Binney & Smith's earliest products: red pigment and carbon black. Red and black are also the most popular crayon colors, mostly because children tend to use them for outlining.  Binney & Smith is dedicated to environmental responsibility. Crayons that don't meet quality standards are remelted and used to make new crayons. Ninety percent of Crayola products packaging is made from recycled cardboard. The company also makes sure the wood in their colored pencils doesn't originate from tropical rain forests.  Binney & Smith produces two billion Crayola crayons a year, which, if placed end to end, would circle the earth 4.5 times.  Crayola crayon boxes are printed in eleven languages: Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Italian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Spanish, and Swedish. 502 Something Completely Different:  In 1864, Joseph W. Binney began the Peekskill Chemical Works in Peekskill, New York, producing hardwood charcoal and a black pigment called lampblack. In 1880 he opened a New York office and invited his son, Edwin Binney, and his nephew, C. Harold Smith, to join the company. The cousins renamed the company Binney & Smith and expanded the product line to include shoe polish, printing ink, black crayons, and chalk.  In 1903, the Binney & Smith company made the first box of Crayola crayons costing a nickel and containing eight colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, brown, and black.  Alice Binney, wife of company co-owner Edwin Binney, coined the word Crayola by joining craie, from the French word meaning chalk, with ola, from oleaginous, meaning oily.  In 1949, Binney & Smith introduced another forty colors: Apricot, Bittersweet, Blue Green, Blue Violet, Brick Red, Burnt Sienna, Carnation Pink, Cornflower, Flesh (renamed Peach in 1962, partly as a result of the civil rights movement), Gold, Gray, Green Blue, Green Yellow, Lemon Yellow, Magenta, Mahogany, Maize, Maroon, Melon, Olive Green, Orange Red, Orange Yellow, Orchid, Periwinkle, Pine Green, Prussian Blue (renamed Midnight Blue in 1958 in response to teachers' requests), Red Orange, Red Violet, Salmon, Sea Green, Silver, Spring Green, Tan, Thistle, Turquoise Blue, Violet Blue, Violet Red, White, Yellow Green, and Yellow Orange.  In 1958, Binney & Smith added sixteen colors, bringing the total number of colors to 64: Aquamarine, Blue Gray, Burnt Orange, Cadet Blue, Copper, Forest Green, Goldenrod, Indian Red, Lavender, Mulberry, Navy Blue, Plum, Raw Sienna, Raw Umber, Sepia, and Sky Blue. They also introduced the now-classic 64-box of crayons, complete with built-in sharpener.  In 1972, Binney & Smith introduced eight fluorescent colors: Atomic Tangerine, Blizzard Blue, Hot Magenta, Laser Lemon, Outrageous Orange, Screamin' Green, Shocking Pink, and Wild Watermelon. In 1990, the company introduced eight more fluorescent colors: Electric Lime, Magic, Mint, Purple Pizzazz, Radical Red, Razzle Dazzle Rose, Sunglow, Unmellow Yellow, and Neon Carrot.  In 1990, Binney & Smith retired eight traditional colored crayons from its 64- crayon box (Green Blue, Orange Red, Orange Yellow, Violet Blue, Maize, Lemon Yellow, Blue Gray, and Raw Umber) and replaced them with such New Age hues as (Cerulean, Vivid Tangerine, Jungle Green, Fuchsia, Dandelion, Teal Blue, Royal Purple, and Wild Strawberry). Retired colors were enshrined in the Crayola Hall of Fame. Protests from groups such as RUMPS (The Raw Umber and Maize Preservation Society) and CRAYON (The Committee to Reestablish All Your Old Norms) convinced Binney & Smith to release the one million boxes of the Crayola Eight in October 1991.  In 1993, Binney & Smith celebrated Crayola brand's ninetieth birthday by introducing the biggest crayon box ever with 96 colors. 503 The mass number is the number of nucleons in an atom – so it’s like the number of protons plus the old number of your basic neutrons. Atoms are required to have a mass number because the number of neutrons can vary from one atom of a particular element to another. For example some atoms of carbon (atomic number 6) have 6 neutrons while others might have 8. Atoms that have different mass numbers are called isotopes. Isotopes of an element behave pretty much the same way, chemically (at least) except that they have a very slightly, teeny difference in mass. So far as chemistry is concerned, isotopes behave the same. So a chemist doesn’t really care about the thing. A is the symbol for the mass number. You won’t find mass numbers on the periodic table. Instead they are supplied as part of the name of the isotope. N is the number of neutrons. Isotopes are identified by their mass numbers. There are several ways to do this. Let’s take as our example an isotope of uranium. We could call it: Uranium – 235 Here we give its mass number, 235. U – 235 The chemical symbol for the element plus the mass number. 235U The chemical symbol plus the mass number. 235U Both the atomic number and the mass number are 92 given. The mass number and atomic number are supplied as follows: Mass number 235 U 92 Symbol for element Atomic number Using the atomic symbol and the mass number we can find the number of particles an isotope has. A  Z  N That is to say: Mass number = atomic number + number of neutrons  How many protons, electrons, and neutrons for 238U ? 92 504 A = 92, so, this is by definition the number of protons. Number of electrons = 92, since the number of electrons = the number of protons. Number of neutrons: A Z  N N  AZ 23892  146 Radioactivity: (You need to know this stuff.) Certain types of isotopes are not, for some reason, stable. The nuclei just up and break apart. Most disconcerting. We call such elements radioactive isotopes. The whole general thing is called radioactivity. Radioactivity has to do with the weak nuclear force and the combination of protons and neutrons. Turns out that some combinations are more stable than others. Radioactivity  spontaneous breakdown of an unstable atomic nucleus with emission of particles and rays. ======================================= (Backkground info - you don’t need to know this stuff.) Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by Antoine-Henri Becquerel (1852 - 1908). It had been established that certain substances would fluoresce, giving off the newly discovered x-rays. Fluoresce means that the substance absorbs electromagnetic waves of some type (like light) and then emits electromagnetic waves later on. The emitted waves do not have to have the same wavelength as the absorbed waves. For example, we beamed UV light onto materials that would fluoresce with UV. They appeared to glow in the dark because the atoms were emitting visible light. The light causing them to do this was UV, and was “invisible” because we can’t see that part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Becquerel devised an elegant experiment to detect the x-rays. He wrapped a photographic plate with dark paper so no light could reach it. Then he placed a piece of potassium uranyl sulfate, a compound containing uranium, on the paper. His idea was that the uranium compound would fluoresce in sunlight – absorb light and then give off x-rays. The x-rays would go through the paper and fog the film. Sure enough, the plate was fogged when he developed it. Eureka! Unfortunately or maybe fortunately, he later The Becquerel Plate placed some of the material, in a dark desk drawer on top of a wrapped up photographic plate, 505 confident that nothing would happen without sunlight. Later, just for the heck of it, he developed the plate. To his amazement, he found that the plate was still fogged - even though it was in the dark and away from sunlight! Whatever had been emitted did not require sunlight and was not a fluorescence byproduct. But what produced the emissions? A year later, a Polish born French chemist, Marie Skodowska Curie (1867-1934), found that it was the uranium, which was releasing the radiation. In 1898 she found that other substances such as thorium also gave off radiation. Working with her husband, Pierre, she discovered the element polonium (which she named for her native country, Poland) and radium. She coined the word "radioactivity" to describe the effect. It turns out that all naturally occurring elements which have an atomic number greater than 83 (bismuth is the element with the honor of having atomic number 83) are radioactive. There are also quite a few isotopes with low atomic numbers that are radioactive, such as C-14 and Co-60. Characteristics of radioactive isotopes: 1. Radioactive emissions affect photographic film. 2. Radiation ionizes air molecules surrounding them. 3. Radiation makes certain compounds fluoresce (give off electromagnetic radiation). 4. Radiation has physical effects on living organisms - it can kill or damage tissue. 5. Radiation destroys and alters the nucleus of the atom and produces a new element or elements from the old one. ===================================================================== Why Are Some Elements Radioactive? (Important stuff you need to know.) The mechanism of radioactivity is not really understood. It appears to be related to the interaction of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The normal isotope of hydrogen has only one proton in its nucleus - no neutrons. Most helium atoms have two protons and two neutrons. The neutrons are required, in some way not fully understood, to "cement" the protons together to form a nucleus. The protons would normally repel each other because of their like charges, but this does not happen in the nucleus. As the number of protons increase, the number of neutrons increases. As the nucleus gets bigger, we soon find that the nuclei have more neutrons than protons. For some reason, certain combinations of neutrons and protons are more stable than others. For example, C- 12 is stable, but C-14 is radioactive. The force that keeps the nucleus together, that acts between protons and neutrons is called the nuclear force. Sometimes it is called the strong nuclear force. This force is many orders of magnitude greater than the electromagnetic force – it would have to be wouldn’t it to keep the protons close together? We know that like electric charges repel each other, so the protons don’t want to be close together. The strong force, much greater than the electromagnetic force binds them together. For this to happen, however, the protons must be very close together – about the radius of a proton or so. Then the strong force kicks in. To sum it up:  The strong force is enormously stronger than the electromagnetic force.  The strong force has a much smaller effective range than does the electromagnetic force. Neutrons are required in the mix of protons for the strong force to work properly. 506 =================================================================== Half-life: (This is stuff you do not need to know.) Any sample of a radioactive element has atoms that undergo spontaneous radioactive decay. When it does this, the number of atoms of the radioactive isotope decreases as the nuclei break apart and form other elements. These new decay elements or products are called daughters. The old, original radioactive element is called the parent. Because of this decay, the amount of the parent decreases with time. The rate of decay is often described in terms of the half-life. Half-life  the time for one half of a radioactive sample to decay. For example, radium-226 has a half-life of 1620 years. This is shown in the graph below. One kg of radium-226 begins the thing. After one half-life (1620years) only half of the sample remains – the other half has decayed into some other element. After two half-lives only one fourth would remain and so on. =================================================== Types of Radioactivity: (Important stuff you need to know.) There are three major types of radiation that the nuclear physicist is concerned with: alpha, beta, and gamma. Alpha radiation consists of particles, alpha particles. The alpha particles are actually helium nuclei. Beta radiation is also made up of particles – electrons. Gamma radiation is made up of very short wavelength electromagnetic waves. The reason for the odd names is a simple one. The types of radiation were discovered before the particles were. So Ernest Rutherford discovered alpha particles before anyone knew anything about helium nuclei. Here are some characteristics of the different types of radiation: 1. Alpha particles. The symbol for the alpha particle is .   particles are helium nuclei. Each alpha consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.  's have a positive charge (+2).  's are only slightly deflected by a magnetic field (because of their large mass).  They are stopped easily by a sheet of paper. 2. Beta particles. The symbol for the beta particle is .  's are electrons, so they have a have a negative charge (-1).  They can be greatly deflected by a magnetic field (because of their small mass and negative charge).  's penetrate matter a greater distance than  particles, but they still aren’t very penetrating. They can be stopped by a layer of metal foil or several sheets of paper. 3. Gamma rays. The symbol for gamma rays is . 507  ’s are very short wavelength, high frequency photons.  ’s have no charge.  They are not deflected by magnetic fields (again, they have no charge).  They are the most penetrating form of radiation. Stopping ’s requires great thicknesses of heavy materials such as lead or concrete. Symbols Used For Particles In Nuclear Reactions: Neutron 1n 0 Proton 1p 1 Electron 0e 1 Alpha particle 4He 2 Gamma ray 0 0 Beta particle 0e 1 Nuclear Reactions: (Important stuff you need to know.) Nuclear reactions are somewhat different than chemical reactions. In chemical reactions, the equation is balanced when the number of each of the different elements on the reactant side equals the number of the different elements on the product side. In nuclear reactions, the atomic number and the mass number for each element must be balanced on both sides (in addition to the number of elements). We say that the mass number and atomic number must be conserved. The effect of balancing the atomic number is to actually balance the charge of the reactant and product. Types of Nuclear Reactions: (Important stuff you need to know.) Alpha decay: In alpha decay, an unstable nucleus produces a daughter nucleus and releases an  particle. 238U  234Th  4He 92 90 2 U-238 decays to produce Th-234 and an alpha particle. During alpha decay, the mass number decreases by 4 and the atomic number decreases by 2. The Th-234 is called a daughter or daughter product. 508 Beta decay: In  decay a neutron in the nucleus of the unstable radioactive parent decays and becomes a proton as it emits a  particle (an electron). 234Th  234Pa  0e 90 91 1 Here, Thorium-234 (produced by alpha decay above, say) has one of its neutrons become a proton - this increases the atomic number by one, but has no effect on the mass number since a neutron and a proton are both nucleons. A beta particle is also produced. Note that the atomic number on the left is equal to the total atomic number on the right. During electron capture, the atomic number of the daughter decreases by one, there is no change to the mass number. Note that in this reaction, you are producing gold from mercury. Pretty cool thing. Gamma Decay : Many nuclear reactions often produce  rays. Alpha decay does this frequently. 238U  234Th  4He  0 92 90 2 0 Other Nuclear Reactions: (Important stuff you need to know.) Beginning in the late 1930's, physicists would bombard atomic nuclei with high-speed particles and then see what happened. Originally the equipment that did the job was called an "atom smasher". These days we call the things "particle accelerators". In 1932 James Chadwick (1891 - 1974), an English physicist, discovered the neutron. He did this by bombarding beryllium with alpha particles. The beryllium absorbed the alpha particle and became carbon. The process released a neutron, which Chadwick detected by the damage it wrought on a piece of paraffin. (Think about it, how do you detect a particle that has no charge?) Anyway, the neutron would plow into the paraffin and collide with hydrogen atoms and knock them about. The tracks of the hydrogen, which showed the path of the neutron, was what he could then observe. Here is the reaction: 9Be  4He  12C  1n  energy 4 2 6 0 The atomic number increased by 2 (the two protons in the  particle) and the mass number went up by 3 instead of 4, this is because a neutron was emitted.  (a) State the type of reaction the following nuclear equation represents and (b) complete it: 15O  ___  0e 8 1 509 (a) Okay, this is clearly beta decay. We know this because one of the products is an electron. (b) Oxygen-15 loses a beta particle. The atomic number decreases by one so the oxygen becomes an element with an atomic number of seven, which is nitrogen. See the atomic number does this: 817 There is no change to the mass number, so it stays at 15. Now we can fill everything in. 15O  15N  0e 8 7 1  Here is a nuclear reaction, see if you can balance the thing. ___  1n  7Li  4He 0 3 2 Here, the mass number on the right side totals up to be eleven. The atomic number total on the right side is five. On the left side we have a neutron, which has a mass number value of 1, so the mass number of the decaying nucleus must be ten. The neutron has no effect on the atomic number of the decaying nucleus, so it must be five (the total atomic number on the right side). So the decaying nucleus must be boron. Now we can complete the reaction: 10B  1n  7Li  4He 5 0 3 2 ====================================================================== Is Radiation All Bad? (Stuff you do not need to know.) The great teeming United States population is deathly afraid of radiation - any kind of radiation. Yet radiation is a natural thing. Radiation is all around us - even inside of us. We are exposed to it every second of our lives. Mutations: Radiation causes mutations and this is a good thing. Doesn’t sound like a good thing though, does it? Makes you think of those old black and white horror movies with the guy having the head of a fly or something, don’t it? But mutations are of great importance. They are one of the key factors in evolution. And, without evolution, we would not be here – well, we might be here, but in the form of a single cell happily living on a bit of sludge with no interest in physics whatsoever. Medical Uses: Radiation is also used to treat cancers. Radiation in high doses is lethal to tissue. Turns out that cancer cells are slightly more vulnerable to radiation than healthy cells. A beam of radioactive particles ( rays for example) are directed at the cancer tumor. 510