Anthropology FOURTEENTH EDITION Carol R. Ember Human Relations Area Files Melvin Ember Peter N. Peregrine Lawrence University and the Santa Fe Institute Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Editorial Director: Dickson Musslewhite Cover Art:Age Fotostock/Alamy Publisher: Charlyce Jones-Owen Director, Digital Studio: Sacha Laustein Editorial Assistant: Maureen Diana Media Product Manager: David Alick Program Manager: Emily Tamburri Media Project Manager: Amanda Smith Project Manager: Nicole Conforti Full-Service Project Management: Jenna Vittorioso Marketing Coordinator: Jessica Warren Composition: Lumina Datamatics, Inc. 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To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, 330 Hudson Ave., Hoboken, NJ. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ember, Carol R. Anthropology / Carol R. Ember, Melvin Ember, Peter N. Peregrine, Lawrence University and the Santa Fe Institute. — Fourteenth edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-205-95718-7 — ISBN 0-205-95718-8 1. Anthropology. I. Ember, Melvin. II. Peregrine, Peter N. (Peter Neal), 1963– III. Title. GN25.E45 2015 306—dc23 2014026517 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Student Edition A la Carte Edition ISBN-10: 0-205-95718-8 ISBN-10: 0-13-404180-1 ISBN-13: 978-0-205-95718-7 ISBN-13: 978-0-13-404180-3 For Mel– aetbntnhAehtoohhlawuuartggao vthhypiohs,to era lth orntheaghde riaw dc ottea e perclst enroti eomeluacudliwdogs tirs hdbd, , g eew.wo ahfovsoore u akrbnengeddialni i egnhifv sa hetyrdu dotm u h ae n 1933–2009 Brief Contents Part I Introduction 1 What Is Anthropology? 1 2 Research Methods in Anthropology 17 Part II Human Evolution 3 Genetics and Evolution 44 4 Human Variation and Adaptation 64 5 Primates: Past and Present 85 6 The First Hominins 107 Part III Cultural Evolution 7 The Origins of Culture and the Emergence of Homo 123 8 The Emergence of Homo sapiens 146 9 The Upper Paleolithic World 163 10 Origins of Food Production and Settled Life 180 11 Origins of Cities and States 205 Part IV Cultural Variation 12 Culture and Culture Change 224 13 Culture and the Individual 259 14 Communication and Language 285 15 Getting Food 316 16 Economic Systems 337 17 Social Stratification: Class, Ethnicity, and Racism 369 18 Sex and Gender 392 19 Marriage and the Family 416 20 Marital Residence and Kinship 445 21 Associations and Interest Groups 471 22 Political Life: Social Order and Disorder 489 23 Religion and Magic 515 24 The Arts 539 Part V Using Anthropology 25 Practicing and Applying Anthropology 557 26 Health and Illness 573 27 Global Problems 591 iv Contents BOXES x PREFACE xii ABOUT THE AUTHORS xviii Part I Introduction Chapter 1 What Is Anthropology? 1 What Is Anthropology? 2 Fields of Anthropology 3 The Scope of Anthropology 2 Specialization 12 The Holistic Approach 3 The Relevance of Anthropology 13 Anthropological Curiosity 3 Chapter 2 Research Methods in Anthropology 17 Explanations 18 Types of Research in Anthropology 27 A Brief History of Anthropological Theory 20 Studying the Distant Past 32 Evidence: Testing Explanations 23 Ethics in Anthropological Research 40 Part II Human Evolution Chapter 3 Genetics and Evolution 44 The Evolution of Evolution 45 Sources of Variability 54 The Principles of Natural Selection 47 The Origin of Species 58 Heredity 49 Natural Selection of Behavioral Traits 59 Chapter 4 Human Variation and Adaptation 64 Processes in Human Variation and Adaptation 65 “Race” and Racism 76 Physical Variation in Human Populations 67 The Future of Human Variation 83 Chapter 5 Primates: Past and Present 85 Common Primate Traits 86 The Emergence of Anthropoids 101 The Various Living Primates 87 The Emergence of Hominoids 103 Distinctive Hominin Traits 94 The Divergence of Hominins from the Other The Emergence of Primates 96 Hominoids 104 v vi Contents Chapter 6 The First Hominins 107 The Evolution of Bipedal Locomotion 108 The First Definite Hominins 114 The Transition from Hominoids to Hominins 113 One Model of Human Evolution 121 Part III Cultural Evolution Chapter 7 The Origins of Culture and the Emergence of Homo 123 Early Hominin Tools 125 EarlyHomo 132 Early Hominin Lifestyles 126 Homo erectus 133 Trends in Hominin Evolution 130 Lower Paleolithic Cultures 140 Chapter 8 The Emergence of Homo sapiens 146 The Transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens 148 The Emergence of Modern Humans 157 Middle Paleolithic Cultures 152 What Happened to the Neandertals? 160 The Denisovans 157 Chapter 9 The Upper Paleolithic World 163 The Last Ice Age 164 The Earliest Humans and Their Cultures in the Upper Paleolithic Europe 166 New World 172 Upper Paleolithic Cultures in Africa and Asia 171 The End of the Upper Paleolithic 176 Chapter 10 Origins of Food Production and Settled Life 180 Preagricultural Developments 182 Why Did Food Production Develop? 198 The Domestication of Plants and Animals 189 Consequences of the Rise of Food Production 200 Chapter 11 Origins of Cities and States 205 Archaeological Inferences About Civilization 207 Theories About the Origin of the State 216 Cities and States in Southern Iraq 209 The Consequences of State Formation 218 Cities and States in Mesoamerica 211 The Decline and Collapse of States 219 The First Cities and States in Other Areas 213 Contents vii Part IV Cultural Variation Chapter 12 Culture and Culture Change 224 Defining Culture 225 How and Why Cultures Change 236 Cultural Constraints 228 Culture Change and Adaptation 247 Attitudes That Hinder the Study of Cultures 229 Globalization: Problems and Opportunities 249 Cultural Relativism 230 Ethnogenesis: The Emergence of New Cultures 252 Describing a Culture 232 Cultural Diversity in the Future 254 Culture Is Patterned 235 Chapter 13 Culture and the Individual 259 The Universality of Psychological Development 260 Psychological Variation in Adulthood 276 The Anthropology of Childhood 264 Psychological Explanations of Cultural Variation 279 Cross-Cultural Variation in Childrearing 267 Individuals as Agents of Cultural Change 280 Chapter 14 Communication and Language 285 Communication 286 The Processes of Linguistic Divergence 303 The Origins of Language 291 Relationships Between Language and Culture 304 Descriptive Linguistics 295 The Ethnography of Speaking 308 Historical Linguistics 299 Writing and Literacy 312 Chapter 15 Getting Food 316 Foraging 317 The Origins of Food Production 332 Food Production 321 The Spread and Intensification of Food Environmental Restraints on Food-Getting 331 Production 334 Chapter 16 Economic Systems 337 The Allocation of Resources 338 The Distribution of Goods and Services 350 The Conversion of Resources 344 The Worldwide Trend Toward Commercialization 360 Chapter 17 Social Stratification: Class, Ethnicity, and Racism 369 Variation in Degree of Social Inequality 370 Racism and Inequality 382 Egalitarian Societies 371 Ethnicity and Inequality 385 Rank Societies 373 The Emergence of Stratification 387 Class Societies 374 viii Contents Chapter 18 Sex and Gender 392 Gender Concepts 394 Political Leadership and Warfare 401 Physique and Physiology 394 The Relative Status of Women 403 Gender Roles 395 Personality Differences 405 Relative Contributions to Work: Who Works More? 398 Sexuality 409 Chapter 19 Marriage and the Family 416 Marriage 417 Whom should One Marry? 429 Why Is Marriage Nearly Universal? 419 How Many Does One Marry? 432 How Does One Marry? 421 The Family 437 Restrictions on Marriage: The Universal Incest Possible Reasons for Extended-Family Households 441 Taboo 425 Chapter 20 Marital Residence and Kinship 445 Patterns of Marital Residence 447 Explaining Variation in Residence 458 The Structure of Kinship 449 The Emergence of Unilineal Systems 463 Variation in Unilineal Descent Systems 452 Explaining Ambilineal and Bilateral Systems 463 Functions of Unilineal Descent Groups 456 Kinship Terminology 464 Ambilineal Systems 458 Chapter 21 Associations and Interest Groups 471 Characteristics of Associations 472 Voluntary Associations 479 Nonvoluntary Associations 473 Chapter 22 Political Life: Social Order and Disorder 489 Variation in Types of Political Organization 490 Variation in Political Process 502 The Spread of State Societies 501 Resolution of Conflict 504 Chapter 23 Religion and Magic 515 The Universality of Religion 516 Religion and Adaptation 530 Variation in Religious Beliefs 520 Religious Change 531 Variation in Religious Practices 525 Contents ix Chapter 24 The Arts 539 Body Decoration and Adornment 541 Artistic Change, Culture Contact, and Global Explaining Variation in the Arts 542 Trade 553 Viewing the Art of Other Cultures 552 Part V Using Anthropology Chapter 25 Practicing and Applying Anthropology 557 Ethics of Applied Anthropology 558 Business and Organizational Anthropology 565 Evaluating the Effects of Planned Change 561 Cultural Resource Management 567 Difficulties in Instituting Planned Change 562 Museum Anthropology 568 Environmental Anthropology 564 Forensic Anthropology 570 Chapter 26 Health and Illness 573 Cultural Understandings of Health and Illness 574 Political and Economic Influences on Health 581 Treatment of Illness 578 Health Conditions and Diseases 581 Chapter 27 Global Problems 591 Natural Events, Disasters, and Famine 592 War 604 Inadequate Housing and Homelessness 594 Terrorism 606 Family Violence and Abuse 598 Making the World Better 608 Crime 601 GLOSSARY 611 NOTES 616 BIBLIOGRAPHY 625 CREDITS 653 INDEX 656