(cid:0)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:2)(cid:2)(cid:5)(cid:6) (cid:5)(cid:2)(cid:7) (cid:8)(cid:5)(cid:9)(cid:4)(cid:6) (cid:10)(cid:11)(cid:12)(cid:13)(cid:5)(cid:14)(cid:5)(cid:3)(cid:15)(cid:12)(cid:2) (cid:0)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:2)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)(cid:6)(cid:8)(cid:6) Professor Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering Galgotias College of Engineering and Technology Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh New Delhi-110001 2011 ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION R.L. Yadava © 2011 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-978-81-203-4291-0 The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Mohan Makhijani at Rekha Printers Private Limited, New Delhi-110020. To My Parents and Children (cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:7) Preface ....................................................................................................................................... xv Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................1–12 Definition of Antenna 1 Radiation from an Antenna 2 Historical View 3 Antenna Polarization 4 Typical Applications 5 Impedance Matching 6 VSWR and Reflected Power 6 Antenna Resonance 6 Bandwidth 7 Directivity, Gain and Beam Width 7 Radiation Patterns 8 Pattern Terminology 8 Types of Propagation 9 Surface Wave Propagation 9 Space Propagation 9 Troposphere Propagation 9 Ionospheric Propagation 10 Objective Type Questions 10 Exercises 11 References 12 Chapter 2 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND RADIATION..........................13–55 Introduction 13 EM Wave Spectrum and Its Applications 14 EM Fields and Maxwell’s Equations 16 Poynting Vector and Velocity of EM Waves 17 (cid:2) (cid:2)(cid:3) (cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:7) Wave Polarization 17 Mathematical Interpretation of Polarization 18 Velocity of Propagation 19 Plane Wave and Uniform Plane Wave 20 Propagation of EM Waves in Different Mediums 20 Power Flow of a Uniform Plane Wave 26 Incidence of Uniform Plane Wave 27 Oblique Incidence 29 Snell’s Law 30 Total Transmission 32 Total Reflection 33 Solved Examples 35 Objective Type Questions 50 Exercises 55 References 55 Chapter 3 ANTENNA FUNDAMENTALS AND PARAMETERS ......................56–113 Introduction 56 Types of Antenna 56 Applications of Antenna 58 Isotropic Radiator and Radiation Field 58 Far-field Region 59 Antenna Parameters 61 Input Impedance and VSWR 61 Equivalent Circuits of Tx Antenna 63 Equivalent Circuit of Rx Antenna 65 Bandwidth 66 Impedance Bandwidth 66 Pattern Bandwidth 67 Radiation Bandwidth 68 FBR 68 Radiation Resistance 69 Directivity 69 Antenna Gain and Efficiency 73 Radiation Pattern 74 HPBW, FNBW, Side Lobe Level and Antenna Resolution 75 Radiation Intensity, Beam Efficiency and Solid Angle 78 Effective Aperture and Effective Height 80 Effective Aperture 80 Antenna Noise Temperature, Noise Figure and SNR 84 Antenna Noise Temperature 84 Effective Noise Temperature and Noise Figure 86 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) 86 Antenna Coupling 87 Antenna Polarization and Parameters 90 Antenna Polarization 90 Field Polarization in Terms of Two Circularly Polarized Components 91 (cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:7) (cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:3) Polarization Vector and Polarization Ratio 92 Polarization Loss Factor and Polarization Efficiency 92 Reciprocity Theorem 93 Solved Examples 95 Objective Type Questions 109 Exercises 111 References 113 Chapter 4 ANTENNA ARRAY................................................................................114–180 Introduction 114 Design Considerations and Design Approach 115 Array Configurations 115 Broadside Array 116 End-fire Array 116 Collinear Array 117 Parasitic Arrays 117 Principle of Pattern Multiplication 123 Array with n-isotropic Point Sources of Equal Amplitude and Linear Spacing 124 Broadside Array 125 End-fire Array 128 Electronic Phased Array 129 Effect of Earth on Vertical Patterns 130 Comparison of Methods 131 Dolph–Tchebyscheff or Chebyshev Array 132 Tchebyscheff Polynomial 132 Dolph Pattern Method of Obtaining Optimum Pattern Using Tchebyscheff Polynomial 134 Calculation of Dolph–Tchebyscheff Amplitude Distribution 135 Advantages of Dolph–Tchebyscheff Distribution 136 Beam Width between First Nulls of Chebyshev Polynomial Patterns 136 Stacked/Rectangular Area Broadband Array 137 Directivity 138 Super Directive Receiving Array 140 SNR and Directive Gain 140 Sensitivity Factor 141 Radiation Efficiency of Super Directive Array 142 Adaptive Array 142 Weighting of Signals 143 Adaptive Antenna in Cellular Systems 145 Binomial Array 147 Disadvantages of Binomial Array 148 Mutual Coupling between Arrays 149 Solved Examples 150 Objective Type Questions 175 Exercises 177 References 180 (cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3) (cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:7) Chapter 5 LINEAR WIRE ANTENNAS................................................................181–234 Introduction 181 Small Dipole and Radiation Mechanism 181 Hertzian Dipole 183 Half-wave Dipole Antenna 186 Radiation Resistance and Input Resistance 190 Parameters of a Dipole Antenna 190 Monopole Antenna 193 Folded Dipole Antenna 194 Theoretical Analysis 195 Input Impedance of Folded Dipole Antenna 197 Applications of Folded Dipole Antenna 197 Harmonics Antenna 198 Parametric Specifications 199 V-dipole Antenna 202 Design Parameters 204 Sleeve Wire Antenna 206 Sleeve Monopole 207 Design Specifications and Experimental Results 209 Sleeve Dipole Antenna 210 Open-sleeve Dipole Antenna 211 Performance Characteristics 212 Beverage Antenna or Wave Antenna 215 Principle of Operation 216 Rhombic Antenna 217 Advantages 220 Disadvantages 220 Solved Examples 221 Objective Type Questions 229 Exercises 231 References 233 Chapter 6 LOOP ANTENNAS.................................................................................235–274 Introduction 235 Historical View 235 Principle of Operation 237 Radiation Fields 239 Induced EMF of Loop Antenna 242 Radiation Pattern of Loop Antenna 243 Large Loop Antenna 245 Loop Antenna Parameters 249 Maximum Effective Area and Gain 250 Multi-turn Loop Antenna 251 Impedance of a Loop Antenna 254 Resistive Part of Impedance 255 Impedance of Loop Antenna in Conducting Medium 256 (cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:7) (cid:3)(cid:4) Ferrite Rod Antenna 259 Applications of Loop Antenna 261 Solved Examples 261 Objective Type Questions 270 Exercises 271 References 273 Chapter 7 METAL-PLATE LENS ANTENNAS...................................................275–302 Introduction 275 Metal-Plate Lens Antennas 276 Lens Antenna Design 277 Types of Lens Antenna 279 E-plane Lens Antenna 279 H-plane Metal-Plate Lens Antenna 282 Antenna Analysis and Design 283 Distribution of Illustration on the Aperture of the Lens 286 Luneburg Lens Antenna 287 Maxwell’s Fisheye Lens 288 Applications 289 Rotman Lens Antenna 290 Applications 291 Tolerances in Lens Antenna 292 Solved Examples 293 Objective Type Questions 300 Exercises 300 References 301 Chapter 8 PARABOLIC REFLECTOR ANTENNAS .........................................303–326 Introduction 303 Feeding Systems 306 Basic Requirements of Reflector Feeding Systems 306 Parabolic Reflector 309 Field Distribution on an Aperture of Parabolic Reflector 312 Parabolic Reflector Antenna Parameters 314 Polarization Loss Efficiency 316 Parabolic Cylindrical Antenna 317 Multiple-reflector Antenna 318 Advantages of Dual Reflector 320 Solved Examples 320 Objective Type Questions 323 Exercises 325 References 325 Chapter 9 YAGI ANTENNA....................................................................................327–353 Introduction 327 Principle of Operation 328 (cid:4) (cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:7) Design Parameters 328 Length of Elements 328 Design of Yagi–Uda Antenna 332 Hansen–Woodyard End Fire Array 335 Analysis of Yagi Antenna 338 System of Linear Equation 340 Far-field Pattern 341 Circular Polarization from the Yagi–Uda Array 342 Yagi–Uda Loop Antennas 343 Effects of Array Parameters 346 Effect of the Reflector 346 Effect of the Directors 346 Effect of Exciter and Wire Cross-section 346 Advantages and Applications 347 Solved Examples 351 Objective Type Questions 350 Exercises 351 References 352 Chapter 10 LOG-PERIODIC ANTENNA...............................................................354–382 Introduction 354 Mathematical Analysis and Design Parameters 355 Feed Techniques 358 Effect of Truncation on Efficiency and Radiation Pattern 359 Performance Characteristics and Design of LPDA 362 Power Gain 362 Input Impedance and VSWR 363 Design of LPDA 364 E-plane Pattern 365 Types of Log-periodic Antennas 367 Log-periodic Toothed Planar Antenna 367 Log-periodic Toothed Wedge Antenna 369 Log-periodic Toothed Trapezoid Antenna 370 Log-periodic Yagi–Uda Array Antenna 371 Log-periodic Yagi–Uda Array Design and Performance Characteristics 374 Applications of Log-periodic Antenna 374 Solved Examples 376 Objective Type Questions 379 Exercises 381 References 382 Chapter 11 HORN AND CONE ANTENNAS.......................................................383–419 Introduction 383 Waveguide and Horn Antennas 383 Various Configurations of Horn Antennas 384 Horn Antenna Parameters 387