Ancient Roots, New Shoots Endogenous development in practice Bertus Haverkort, Katrien van ‘t Hooft and Wim Hiemstra (eds) Published in 2003 by ETC/Compas in association with Zed Books Ltd. ETC/Compas, P.O. Box 64, 3830 AB Leusden, The Netherlands Zed Books, 7 Cynthia Street, London N1 9JF, United Kingdom and Room 400, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York 10010, USA. Distributed in the USA exclusively by Palgrave, a division of St Martin's Press, LLC, 175, Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA in 2003. Ancient Roots, New Shoots Endogenous development in practice Bertus Haverkort, Katrien van ‘t Hooft and Wim Hiemstra (eds) Leusden: ETC/Compas London: Zed Books 2003 ISBN 1 84277 334 8 cased ISBN 1 84277 335 6 limp A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available. Keywords: biodiversity, endogenous development, sustainable agriculture, indigenous knowledge, culture, health, natural resource management, traditional practices © The editors and authors of this book reserve the rights of this publication. However, readers are encouraged to copy and circulate this information and to translate it into other languages, as long as it is not done for commercial purposes. Seeking knowledge The cautious guest who comes to the table speaks sparingly. Listens with ears learns with eyes. Such is the seeker of knowledge. Eddaic poem AD 800 6 CONTENTS 1 Introduction 7 2 Cultures, knowledges and developments, a historical perspective 11 3 The Compas approach to support endogenous development 29 4 Knowledge and belief systems in the Indian subcontinent 37 4.1 Endogenous development through experimenting farmers, KPP 49 4.2 Revitalising local health traditions, FRLHT 58 4.3 Empowerment of Tharu indigenous knowledge, ECOS 70 4.4 Modern dilemmas and traditional insights, CIKS 74 4.5 Supporting endogenous development of the Atoni, TIRD 84 4.6 The path of rediscovery, GREEN 89 4.7 Revitalising traditional agriculture, ECO and Compas Network Sri Lanka 102 4.8 Building on tribal resources, IDEA 115 5 Knowledge and belief systems in sub-Saharan Africa 137 5.1 Improving farming with ancestral support, CECIK 153 5.2 Developing centres of excellence on endogenous development, AZTREC 169 6 Knowledge and belief systems in Latin America 181 6.1 Endogenous development and university education, AGRUCO 191 6.2 Cosmovision as a basis for development, ADICI and OXLAJUJAJPOP 204 7 Knowledge and belief systems in Europe 209 7.1 Biodynamic farming and farmers’ realities, BD-UNION 218 7.2 Environmental co-operatives reconnect farming, ecology and society, WUR 222 8 Results and Conclusions 229 9 Creating an enabling environment for endogenous development 247 Definitions 256 References 258 Adresses Compas Partner Organisations 262 Colophon 264 7 1. INTRODUCTION Over the last 5 decades the development activities of rural and urban people, local lead- ers, NGOs, government agencies, as well as international research and support agencies, have led to a situation in which more people have food, better health, longer lifes, more access to education and faster communication. And yet, more people than ever before live under circumstances of extreme poverty. Education, healthcare, markets, and employment systems often function poorly. At global level, the environmental problems are alarming, the differences in wealth between countries are enormous, social and cultural systems are disintegrating, while political and ethnic tensions are increasing [Beemans in Harper, 2000]. In addressing these problems, a great number of initiatives and approaches aim at an economically feasible, socially just, ecologically sound, and culturally acceptable develop- ment path. Often these initiatives are carried out by networks working on a particular theme such as poverty reduction, participatory development, natural resources, low exter- nal input and sustainable agriculture, energy, biodiversity, indigenous rights, cultural diver- sity, or language. These initiatives give considerable attention to traditional knowledge, although the focus is often limited to the technical part of it, while the socio-cultural and spiritual aspects of these knowledge systems often receive little attention. Compas.The Compas programme has its roots in innovative initiatives with low external input agriculture, based on local knowledge and practices. Since 1997 Compas functions as an international network that supports initiatives for endogenous development, or ‘development from within’. The partners in this network are NGOs and universities based in Latin America, Africa, Asia and Europe. They link theoretical reflections about devel- opment with practical interventions in the rural areas, thus contributing to the emergence of insights and effective methodologies. The approach of the Compas programme can be described as ‘action-research on endogenous development’. It aims at supporting the growing movement towards sustainable and endogenous development. Through the Compas Magazine and regular workshops, Compas also contributes to the international intercultural dialogue on development. Endogenous development is based on the local initiatives to use resourses. Key aspects of supporting endogenous development are: building on local needs, improving local knowledge and practices, local control of development options, identification of new development niches, selective use of external resources, retention of benefits in the local area, exchange and learning between cultures, training and capacity building, networking and strategic partnerschip, understanding systems of knowing and learning. This book presents the experiences and insights gained with endogenous development during the Compas programme: between 1997 and 2002. Ancient Roots and New Shoots. In the course of mankind’s history, several cultures, each with their own religion, worldview, scientific concepts and technologies, have emerged. The introduction of agriculture eventually resulted in the building of towns, the 8 emergence of trade, as well as writing and accounting, the development of specialised professions, scientific discoveries, and schools. Several early civilisations reached high degrees of sophistication and influence, especially in the Middle East, Mediterranean, South Asia and China. Later, the Greek-Roman, Mayan, Inca, Arab and western cultures gained influence. The rise and fall of civilisations, with their domination, control and exchanges of cultures and technologies, seems to be a phenomenon of all times through- out the world. The last couple of centuries have witnessed the incomparable dominance of the west- ern culture. Western economic mechanisms, values, science and technology increasingly replace traditional cultures and knowledge systems throughout the world. These tradition- al systems are rejected, or regarded poorly, while little is done to strengthen their dynam- ics for local development. The capacity of local knowledge systems is further weakened when the younger generation is attracted by the dominant culture, and decides to move away from their cultural background. At the same time, the traditional cultures display remarkable resilience. Though not always openly expressed, traditional values, knowledge, concepts and practices still play an important role in the decision making process of rural people in many parts of the world. Traditional leaders are influential, and their cultural values - often quite different from those which dominate in the West - prevail in many rural societies. This of course, includes both the positive and more negative aspects of traditional practices. Meanwhile, the limitations of the western culture and technologies are also becoming clearer. The per- sistent problems of industrialised agriculture, such as environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity, lack of animal welfare, and the disintegration of rural communities, strength- en the call for innovative rural development approaches. Diversity and co-evolution as important keys. There is growing awareness that tech- nologies developed under one set of conditions may not be effective under other econom- ic, ecological and socio-cultural situations. Instead of applying fixed technology packages under all conditions, more importance is now attached to the concept of ‘diversity’: diver- sity in values, scientific concepts, technologies, development approaches, farming styles, biological systems, cultural expressions and lifestyles. Diversity is increasingly considered to hold important keys towards solving major global problems. The ultimate result of basing development actions on this concept can be a diversity of sciences, practices and cultures, which co-exist and co-evolve. This diversity allows for a variation of options and solutions according to the specifics of local situations. Combining the efforts of innovative rural people, development organisations and policy- making bodies is required to bring this concept one step further, and to relate it to our increasingly globalising world. This book The book provides insights into some of the cultures and knowledge systems on the dif- ferent continents. The authors from Asia, Africa, Latin America and Europe have learned that traditional cultures and knowledges - we deliberately use this word in plural - of the Introduction 9 local people can be the starting point for local development activities. In doing so, two risks need to be avoided: the risk of romanticising local traditions and the risk of reject- ing them. This, of course, is also true for modern technologies, which can be romanticised or rejected. Taking knowledge systems seriously implies a constructive and critical posi- tion, one that searches for possibilities to improve upon them. Strengthening the capacity for learning, experimenting and changing is an important task for all those involved in the process of enhancing endogenous development. Experiences presented here provide important insights in endogenous development Acknowledging the importance of equitable and just international relations, this book does not emphasise confrontation between the knowledge systems of the West and the rest. Instead, it presents a critical analysis of the mechanisms required for endogenous development, which includes both traditional and modern knowledge and practices. Content.The first three chapters of this book provide a historical perspective of cultures and knowledges in the world, a description of the endogenous development approach, and the background of the Compas programme. The chapters on the geographical regions (4, 5, 6 and 7) describe the most important aspects of the cultures, knowledge and technologies prevailing in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Europe, with specific reference to those areas where Compas partners are building up experiences. This includes the worldview of the peoples, their knowledge and concepts, as well as the demographic and political context. Special attention is given to the history of each region. These Ancient Roots continue to influence the present situation, and give rise to New Shoots in endogenous development. The case studies in the same chapters present prac- tical experiences of rural people and development staff in enhancing endogenous devel- opment. The insights gained into traditional practices and values are described together with the local constraints related to human welfare, ecology or economy, and the results of the wide variety of interventions to improve upon them. Though the major focus is on agriculture, health and natural resources, the activities also include a variety of other aspects, such as tourism, crafts and marketing. An analysis of these efforts, as well as the mechanisms for creating an enabling envi- ronment for endogenous development is presented in the concluding chapters (8 and 9). The annexes provide information on the Compas partner organisations, and present an explanation of some of the most important concepts used in this book. Limitations. This book presents a snapshot of the learning process in the 14 countries in Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and Europe, where Compas partner organisa- tions are implementing their activities. At present, Compas is working only in countries where English or Spanish is spoken. Information about other cultures, such as the Arab world, the Chinese, the Aboriginals, the North American natives, to name but a few, are absent in this volume. In the process of writing this book, we have not been able to overcome all our cultur- al biases, as the editors and most of the authors have been trained in the western way of thinking. The very process of describing the historic context in the various regions con- fronted us with striking cultural differences, for example, in the concepts of time. Such 10 cultural differences also exist in the scientific approaches. A scientist in the West is sup- posed to accumulate knowledge by using the five senses - smell, taste, hearing, touch and sight - while in other scientific traditions, the senses may be complemented with con- sciousness, religious experiences and intuition. Readability has been the argument for reducing the number of local terms, or for translating them into English, and in the process the original significance may have been somewhat distorted. Moreover, although the editors have tried to prevent generalisation, writing about cultures may have in places done just that. Despite these limitations we feel that the experiences and insights presented here provide valuable insights on endogenous development. The authors are aware that much still needs to be learned in this field, and are open for comments and reactions. The Compas programme produces the six-month- ly Compas Magazine as a medium for the dialogue on endogenous development. Acknowledgements The book has been written by a great number of authors who are directly involved in practical field work of the Compas partner organisations. The work towards endogenous development is a challenging, difficult and energy absorbing activity. The fact that we have been able to present the experiences here is proof of the dedication and determination of all involved in the Compas network, as well as other actors in the movement. Valuable basic ideas and comments for the book were provided by the regional co- ordinators of Compas - David Millar (CECIK), Cosmas Gonese (AZTREC), A.V. Balasubramanian(CIKS) and Freddy Delgado (AGRUCO). A reference group in the Netherlands, consisting of Karin Boven (Nuffic), Coen Reijntjes (ILEIA) and Edith van Walsum (ETC), guided the writing process, while scientific support was provided by Niels Röling and Jan Douwe van der Ploeg from the Wageningen University, and Ton Dietz from the University of Amsterdam. Language editing was done meticulously by Chesha Wettasinha, while editorial support was provided by Désirée Dirkzwager. The lay-out and page making was done by Marijke Kreikamp. We are grateful for their dedication. The Compas programme has been funded and sponsored by DGIS-DDE, DGIS- DCO, Novib, SDC, CTA and UNESCO. Without their generous financial and moral sup- port the programme would not have been possible. 11 2. CULTURES, KNOWLEDGES AND DEVELOPMENT A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE An impressive variety of civilisations exists across the globe, each with its own knowledge and value system. Some of these can be traced back more than 10,000 years when agriculture emerged, followed by towns, crafts, trade, scripts and other technologies. Religion played an important role in determining the values, systems of governance and scientific methods on which these cultures were based. This chapter presents an overview of some important ancient civilisations, as well as more recent developments, such as the colonial period, the enlightenment and the present process of globalisation. These historical roots determine the cultural identity, and play a crucial role in the choices of development options of rural communities today. Some 2.5 million years ago tool-making hominids emerged on the earth, and the first known tools are chipped pebbles from East Africa. Evolutionists believe that around 100,000 years ago, modern man (Homo sapiens sapiens) emerged in Africa, and by 30,000 years ago man was present throughout large parts of the world, including the Americas and Australia [Scarre, 1991]. When the last ice age came to an end, some 10,000 years ago, the earth’s temperature rose, and allowed people to inhabit its northern parts as well. Ever since appearing on the earth, man has been learning to master the environment. This process started with the use of hand tools, building of shelters and the knowledge of fire, passed through to the development of agriculture, pottery, metallurgy and building of towns and steam engines, and has finally evolved to the use of nuclear power and elec- tronics. Emerging cultures Around 10,000 years ago agriculture developed on the different continents: in the Fertile Crescent (the territory stretching from the Persian Gulf to Mesopotamia and Palestine), the Indus and Gangetic Valleys, as well as the plains of northern China. Later, it spread to Central America and the Andes, north western Europe and sub-Saharan Africa. Only the deserts did not allow for farming; here, hunting and gathering, in combination with nomadic systems, exist even today. The development of the first urban, literate civilisation in southern Mesopotamia, around 5,500 years ago, was to have profound consequences in history. Within a few cen- turies, similar processes led to the emergence of advanced civilisations in Egypt, the Indus Valley and northern China, which shared certain features. They were centred on fertile alluvial plains with high potential to support an increasing population. The people lived in cities, which were ruled as independent states, or as part of a larger empire, while differ- entiation of occupations and crafts, as well as international trade emerged. Similar processes took place around 3,000 years ago in the Andean highlands and Central Mexico. The agricultural practices in these different ancient civilisations varied greatly: in Egypt and the Indus Valley the annual flooding was used to provide water and fertility - crops could be planted on receding waters - while in Mesopotamia, China and the Americas,