From Right to Left and beyond the state: Rethinking Indian Church and mission Keith Hebden 1 From Right to Left and beyond the state: Rethinking Indian Church Mission Introduction Part One: Understanding the Post-colonial context Chapter One: A theology fit for post-colonial discourse Chapter Two: Mother India and her competing consorts Chapter Three: Self-preservation society Part Two: Resisting the state in colonial and post-colonial India Chapter Four: Missiological controversies on Church and state Chapter Five: Fathers of the Nation: the controversial roles of Gandhi and Part Three: Dalit religion and Liberation theology: A subversive synthesis Chapter Six: Dalit community as resistance Chapter Seven: Controversies in Dalit theology Chapter Eight: Jesus the foreigner 2 Introduction Indian Christian theology has a rich, varied, and ancient history dating back to the Apostle Thomas, according to legend. Many Hindus have thought, acted, and written in response to Christianity as presented to them and offered insights into both faiths. Ram Mohan Roy, Keshab Chandra Sen, Nehemiah Goreh, and Sri Ramakrishna are among the earliest Hindu reformers who delve into Christian doctrine from a Vedic perspective. In the early twentieth century Sadhu Sundar Singh, famously characterised by the Anglican priest C. F. Andrews, drew out a challenging praxiology of faith from the Christian message. From the second half of the nineteenth century onward the Christian Bhakti movement has sought to create an understanding of worship and salvation that draws on both the orthodox Christian tradition and the Vedic tradition. However, through most of the history of the interface between these two faiths the focus has been on dialogue between the conservative elements of both. Thus the theology that has evolved tends to be individualistic, esoteric, and most of all obsessed with metaphysics. Very rarely has conventional Indian theology dared to enter the realm of political discourse. Manilal C. Parekh, as we shall discover, is an unusual and extreme example. However, the advent of a liberation theology claims to have changed the emphasis and taken Indian theology in a new direction. By challenging the status quo it has created many controversies of its own. However, it is yet to be sufficiently self-critical or self-aware to audit how far it has moved from its conservative roots. The context of the emergence of Indian liberation theology, or Dalit theology, is the post-colonial restiveness in the wider political arena fuelled by a growing awareness of the themes of liberation theologies by Indian theologians looking for sources 3 elsewhere in the post-colonial church, most notably in Latin America. However, the contention of this book is that liberation theology is not post-colonial enough, but is heading in the right direction. To be post-colonial is to resist the supremacy of the colonisers and recover the pre-colonial culture from their influence. Yet the greatest influence of the colonizers - the formation of the liberal democratic nation state - is rarely mentioned or challenged. The formation of the state has implications for the doing of Dalit theology, herein lies the problem. Yet Dalit theology is having a slow but steady impact on the way Dalits view, not uncritically, the nation state. In finding the resources to make this challenge real Dalits could find themselves turning to their other oppressor, another invention of the statistic colonizers – the Vedic reformers. Chapter one allows us to explore what tools are available to generate a useful post- colonial discourse in the contemporary Indian context. An understanding of Christian anarchism is outlined because this tradition helps us to understand the liberationist hermeneutic circle as a hermeneutic of resistance. The hermeneutic of resistance is the key tool to reading colonial and post-colonial developments in theology, literature, Missiology, and political ideology. This is because post-colonial theology, which is what Indian theology must be, has to challenge the continued importance placed on the boundaries and administration of the colony. This chapter asks why the state, or colony, has come to be admired so much even by anti-western critics and assumed to be authentically Indian when it took so much enthusiasm and violence to create. Leo Tolstoy and Walter Wink offer useful models for understanding India’s socio- theological context having ways of challenging colonial state-making in the West. 4 Chapter two uses the hermeneutic of resistance to define the political parameters of socio-theological discourse. We name some of the defining powers of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries in relation to Indian theology. Namely, we identify Mother India as the god of states; the Missionary God as the ideological position of an imposed Christendom theology on the indigenous church; and the Hindutva God as the ideological movement claiming to be the only authentically Indian tradition but which is in fact based on western foundations of modernism, statism, and coercive violence. Chapter three analyses Christian responses to the colonial and post-colonial climate of fear and fundamentalism, and asks to what extent the Church is equipped to deal with increasing tension, violence, and competing truth claims. Here we take a closer look at the violence that has troubled Gujarat state, north India, over the past decade. We ask how it has emerged from a religious and political context and in what way Christian theology has responded to its horrors. Indian theology has responded by re- visiting what it means to be Indian and Christian. We look at the growth of global Pentecostalism and its impact on mainstream churches in India as well as the theological implications of the challenges the church is facing. Chapter four reveals that Missiology during protestant missions of the 1930s was not universally conservative and statist. Some missionaries, listening carefully to high caste reformers like Gandhi and paying sincere attention to the context of Dalits, offer us a precursor to Dalit theology that echoes universal themes of liberation theology long before the term was coined, but in a distinctively Indian way. We also look at Roman Catholic mission by returning to present-day Gujarat and showing how this 5 tradition of nonviolent resistance is rooted in a radical theology in solidarity with the marginalised. A hermeneutic of resistance finds resonance with Indian Missiology when it engages with the politics of state and oppression. Chapter five breaks exciting new ground in uncovering and challenging assumptions about two of the most important figures in modern Indian history, particularly in the national narrative of Dalit political and religious discourse. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi are often seen as diametrically opposed ideologues by their fans and detractors. Neither figure is as he would first appear, according to this carefully nuanced study of their relationship and their understandings of the compact between religion and state. Dalits movements that reject the contribution made by Gandhi to Indian theology miss out on much that resonates with their own worldviews. Dalit movements that uncritically accept Ambedkar’s role as one of a ‘Moses-like’ figure redeeming his enslaved people do so only by ignoring weaknesses in his position. Chapter six shows how the modern Dalit movement, from the 1960s to the present day, along with the foreign influence of Latin American liberation theology, has shaped Indian theology and ecclesiology in important yet limited ways. In chapter seven we see that Indian theology has responded to but not always engaged with the Dalit movement’s symbology or literature. While certain theologians stand out as having contributed greatly to this conversation, especially A. M. Arulraja and Sathianathan Clarke, there are gaps in this emerging theology that suggest missing 6 themes but also a hidden narrative that needs to be explored: a hermeneutic of resistance that leads to a celebration of the motif of ‘foreignness’. Chapter eight develops this motif of subversive foreignness with special reference to Jesus and his political theology of resistance. This chapter, as well as being a conclusion is an invitation to Indian theologians to explore the implications of setting down the defensive and reactionary apologetics of conservative Christian patriotism and respond to the times with a defiant rejection of patriotism. Instead, they may embrace both a mystic refusal to be cowed and a concrete position of solidarity with those on the margins of state. Subversive foreignness leads to a new understanding of Mother India more in keeping with both Dalit religion and Christian anarchist theology that sees her liberated from being defined by her consort and the uniformity of statism. In taking this position Dalit theology could be radically reinterpreting a lot that has been assumed ‘Indian’ and creating new paradigms for transforming Indian life. 7 Part One: Understanding the post-colonial context 8 Chapter One: A theology fit for post-colonial discourse They called this area ‘India’, a term then alien to the peoples of south Asia and imprecise even in European usage, and they conceived this ‘India’ as a distinct Asian entity and hence, by the criteria of colonial expansion, as a legitimate subject of dominion.1 A theology of resistance Dalit theologians focus on resisting caste as the profound and near unique symptom of oppression in India by weaving a Dalit identity of their own, scavenged from perceptions of the past and dyed in their own religious landscape. Dalits are not an abstraction or summary of Indian poverty; they live in many places and are rooted in diverse histories. But the present Dalit movement emerged from colonial and post- colonial India at a time when the meaning of India is divisive, precarious and the source of violent injustice. Mother India is foremost a nation state developed on the European model of nation states, by those whose ideological bent is toward modernity and capitalist democracy. The statist agenda has shaped the Indian context and continues to do so despite resistance. Major political players co-conspire with colonialists on the identity of India’s politics and culture [okay?]. This agenda has a developmental impact on religion and forms of resistance because the tools for questioning the supremacy of the state are rarely taken up. A workable hermeneutic of resistance with which to critique the historical development of Indian theology, both Christian and Hindu, will, through Dalit Christian theology, highlight the real challenges faced by the church in relation to its post-colonial scene. 1 John Keay, The Great Arc: The dramatic tale of how India was mapped and Everest was named, London: HarperCollins Publishers, 2000, p. 82. 9 The hermeneutic of resistance must be influenced by Christian anarchism for at least two reasons. First, the nation state is foreign to India and anarchism, more explicitly than Marxism – the traditional tool of liberation theologians – challenges the need for a nation state and reminds us that society has existed predominantly in local or federated mutually reciprocal un-coerced groups for most of social history.2 Second, as we shall discover, both Varnic and Dalit religion have a subversive element to them that resonates with the Christian anarchist tradition. While religion and culture are easily co-opted by proponents of the statist agenda – reifying caste, centralising power, and perpetuating the myth of redemptive violence – there is always an element rooted in faith that resists the dominant narrative. ‘Anarchy’ is a Greek word meaning ‘anti-rulership’ and as such semantically foreign to India although there are modern Hindi equivalents used by Satyagrahas: arajya (no-ruler), ramraj (kingdom of God in the Tolstoyan sense), and rajya-mukti (freedom from rule). Because of the resonance of the anarchist critique of empire with the Indian context of colonial and post- colonial reform it fits. In fact Christian anarchism is less foreign to India than more vocal cultural approaches: Hindutva, Neo-Buddhism, or Theosophy, because it challenges that which is imposed and amplifies that which the colonialists trampled in their haste to form and control a nation. Liberation theologies such as Dalit theology consistently return to social science and the experiences of the marginalised as foundational for protest, intervention and retelling. If anarchism is a social science Christian anarchism is a whole ideological critique that forces the hermeneutic circle of liberation theology to more genuinely engage with what it means to be post-colonial. This hermeneutic of resistance envisages a society in which rules are replaced by covenants of action and 2 Peter Kropotkin, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, London: Freedom Press, 1998. 10