Analyzing Grammar AnalyzingGrammarisaclearintroductorytextbookongrammaticalanaly- sis, designed for students beginning to study the discipline. Covering both syntax(thestructureofphrasesandsentences)andmorphology(thestructure ofwords),itequipsthemwiththetoolsandmethodsneededtoanalyzegram- matical patterns in any language. Students are shown how to use standard notationaldevicessuchasPhraseStructuretreesandword-formationrules, aswellasprosedescriptions,andareencouragedtopracticeusingthesetools throughadiverserangeofproblemsetsandexercises.Emphasisisplaced on comparing the different grammatical systems of the world’s languages. Topics covered include word order, constituency, case, agreement, tense, gender, pronoun systems, inflection, derivation, argument structure, and Grammatical Relations, and a useful glossary provides a clear explanation ofeachterm. paul r. kroeger isAssociateProfessorandHeadoftheDepartmentof AppliedLinguisticsattheGraduateInstituteofAppliedLinguistics,Dallas. HehaspreviouslypublishedPhraseStructureandGrammaticalRelationsin Tagalog(1993)andAnalyzingSyntax(CambridgeUniversityPress,2004). HehascarriedoutlinguisticfieldworkinEastMalaysia,andhaswrittenfor many journals including Pacific Linguistics, Oceanic Linguistics, and the PhilippineJournalofLinguistics. Analyzing Grammar An Introduction PAUL R. KROEGER    Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridg e.org /9780521816229 © Paul R. Kroeger 2005 This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2005 - ---- eBook (NetLibrary) - --- eBook (NetLibrary) - ---- hardback - --- hardback - ---- paperback - --- paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guaranteethatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwillremain,accurateorappropriate. ForSarah,Ruth,andKatie Contents Prefaceandacknowledgments pagexi Listofabbreviations xiv 1 Grammaticalform 1 1.1 Form,meaning,anduse 1 1.2 Aspectsoflinguisticform 2 1.3 Grammarasasystemofrules 4 1.4 Conclusion 5 2 Analyzingwordstructure 7 2.1 Identifyingmeaningfulelements 7 2.2 Morphemes 12 2.3 Representingwordstructure 14 2.4 Analyzingpositionclasses 18 2.5 Atypologyofwordstructure 22 Exercises 24 3 Constituentstructure 26 3.1 Ambiguity 26 3.2 Constituency 28 3.3 Hierarchy 32 3.4 Syntacticcategories 33 3.5 Treediagrams:representingtheconstituentsofa clause 38 3.6 Pronounsandpropernamesasphrasalcategories 44 3.7 Conclusion 46 Practiceexercises 47 Exercises 47 4 SemanticrolesandGrammaticalRelations 51 4.1 Simplesentencesandpropositions 52 4.2 Argumentsandsemanticroles 53 4.3 GrammaticalRelations 55 4.4 Adjunctsvs.arguments 58 vii viii Contents 4.5 “Indirectobjects”andsecondaryobjects 61 4.6 Conclusion 62 Exercises 63 5 Lexicalentriesandwell-formedclauses 66 5.1 Lexicalentries 66 5.2 Argumentstructureandsubcategorization 67 5.3 Propertiesofawell-formedclause 72 5.4 Uniquenessofobliquearguments 79 5.5 Zero-anaphora(“pro-drop”) 79 5.6 FurthernotesonEnglishPhraseStructure 81 5.7 Conclusion 83 Exercises 83 6 NounPhrases 87 6.1 ComplementsandadjunctsofN 87 6.2 Determiners 89 6.3 AdjectivesandAdjectivePhrases(AP) 90 6.4 Possessionandrecursion 92 6.5 EnglishNPstructure(continued) 97 6.6 Conclusion 98 Practiceexercise 98 Exercises 98 7 Caseandagreement 102 7.1 Case 102 7.2 Agreement 111 7.3 Conclusion 118 Exercises 119 8 Nounclassesandpronouns 128 8.1 Nounclassesandgender 128 8.2 Pronouns 135 Exercises 143 9 Tense,Aspect,andModality 147 9.1 Tense 147 9.2 Aspect 152 9.3 Perfectvs.perfective 158 9.4 Combinationsoftenseandaspect 161 9.5 Mood 163 9.6 Modality 165 9.7 Conclusion 168 Exercises 169 Contents ix 10 Non-verbalpredicates 173 10.1 Basicclausepatternswithandwithoutthecopula 174 10.2 Existentialandpossessiveclauses 180 10.3 Cross-linguisticpatterns 181 10.4 Anoteon“impersonalconstructions” 185 10.5 Furthernotesonthepredicatecomplement (XCOMP)relation 187 10.6 Conclusion 189 Exercises 190 11 Specialsentencetypes 196 11.1 Directvs.indirectspeechacts 196 11.2 Basicwordorder 197 11.3 Commands(imperativesentences) 199 11.4 Questions(interrogativesentences) 203 11.5 Negation 211 11.6 Conclusion 214 Practiceexercise 214 Exercises 215 12 Subordinateclauses 218 12.1 Coordinatevs.subordinateclauses 218 12.2 Complementclauses 220 12.3 Directvs.indirectspeech 224 12.4 Adjunct(orAdverbial)clauses 227 12.5 Relativeclauses 230 12.6 Conclusion 240 Practiceexercise 241 Exercises 241 13 Derivationalmorphology 247 13.1 Stems,roots,andcompounds 248 13.2 Criteriafordistinguishinginflectionvs.derivation 250 13.3 Examplesofderivationalprocesses 253 13.4 Wordstructurerevisited 259 13.5 Conclusion 265 Practiceexercise 265 Exercises 266 14 Valence-changingmorphology 270 14.1 Meaning-preservingalternations 271 14.2 Meaning-changingalternations 277 14.3 Incorporation 280 14.4 Conclusion 282