Analog Electronics Applications F U N D A M E N TA L S O F D E S I G N A N D A N A LYS I S Analog Electronics Applications F U N D A M E N TA L S O F D E S I G N A N D A N A LYS I S Hernando Lautaro Fernandez-Canque Glasglow Caledonian University, Scotland, United Kingdom Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper Version Date: 20160620 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-1495-2 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information stor- age or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copy- right.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that pro- vides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photo- copy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com To my wife Vicky and our children Lalo, Bruni, Lia, and Mandela Contents Preface.....................................................................................................................xix Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................xxi Author ..................................................................................................................xxiii Chapter 1 Analog Electronics Applications and Design ......................................1 1.1 Introduction to Analog Electronics ...........................................1 1.2 Analog Signals ...........................................................................1 1.3 Analog Systems .........................................................................2 1.4 Application and Design of Analog Systems ..............................3 1.4.1 Customer Requirements ...............................................3 1.4.2 Top-Level Specifications ..............................................4 1.4.3 System Design Approach .............................................4 1.4.3.1 Top-Level Design ..........................................5 1.4.3.2 Detailed Design ............................................5 1.4.4 Technology Choice .......................................................5 1.4.4.1 System Testing ..............................................6 1.4.4.2 Social and Environmental Implications .......6 1.4.4.3 Documentation ..............................................6 1.4.5 Distortion and Noise .....................................................6 1.4.5.1 Noise .............................................................7 1.4.5.2 Distortion ......................................................7 1.4.6 Electronic Design Aids ................................................8 1.5 Key Points ..................................................................................9 Chapter 2 Electric Circuits ..................................................................................11 2.1 Introduction .............................................................................11 2.2 Units.........................................................................................11 2.2.1 Unit of Charge ............................................................12 2.2.2 Unit of Force ...............................................................12 2.2.3 Unit of Energy ............................................................12 2.2.4 Unit of Power ..............................................................13 2.2.5 Unit of Electric Voltage ..............................................13 2.2.6 Unit of Resistance and Conductance ..........................13 2.3 Concept of Electric Charge and Current .................................15 2.4 M ovement of Electrons and Electric Current in a Circuit .......16 2.4.1 Circuit .........................................................................16 2.4.2 Electromotive Force ...................................................17 2.4.3 Source .........................................................................17 2.4.4 Load ............................................................................17 vii viii Contents 2.5 Passive Components: Resistance, Inductance, and Capacitance .............................................................................17 2.5.1 Resistance ...................................................................17 2.5.1.1 Resistors Connected in Series and Parallel......................................................19 2.5.1.2 Resistors Connected in Series ....................19 2.5.1.3 Resistor Connected in Parallel ....................19 2.5.1.4 Special Case ................................................20 2.5.2 Capacitance ................................................................21 2.5.2.1 Capacitors in Parallel ..................................24 2.5.2.2 Capacitors in Series ....................................24 2.5.3 Inductors .....................................................................26 2.5.3.1 Inductors in Series ......................................27 2.5.3.2 Inductors in Parallel ....................................28 2.5.3.3 Energy Storage W in an Inductor ...............29 2.5.4 Application: Inductive Proximity Sensors .................29 2.6 Active Components of a Circuit: Sources ...............................29 2.6.1 Ideal Voltage Source ..................................................30 2.6.2 Practical Voltage Source ............................................30 2.6.3 Voltage Sources Connected in Series .........................31 2.6.4 Voltage Sources Connected in Parallel ......................31 2.6.4.1 Ideal Current Source ...................................31 2.6.4.2 Practical Current Source.............................31 2.7 Electric Circuits/Networks ......................................................32 2.7.1 Selection of Components ............................................34 2.8 Key Points ................................................................................34 Chapter 3 Circuit Analysis ..................................................................................35 3.1 Concept of Steady State and Transient Solutions ....................35 3.2 DC Circuits ..............................................................................36 3.2.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law Applied to Electric Circuits: KCL .............................................................36 3.2.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Applied to Electric Circuits: KVL .............................................................41 3.2.2.1 The Voltage and Current Divider ...............58 3.3 AC Circuits ..............................................................................60 3.3.1 Origin of Phasor Domain ...........................................62 3.3.2 Application of Kirchhoff’s Law to ac Circuits ...........64 3.3.2.1 Impedance Z ...............................................64 3.3.2.2 Impedance of an Inductor ...........................65 3.3.2.3 Impedance of a Capacitance .......................66 3.3.2.4 Impedance of a Resistance .........................67 3.3.2.5 Reactance X ................................................68 3.3.2.6 Polar–Cartesian Forms ...............................69 Contents ix 3.3.2.7 Cartesian to Polar Form ..............................69 3.3.2.8 Polar to Cartesian .......................................69 3.3.2.9 Phasor Diagrams .........................................70 3.4 Key Points ................................................................................76 Chapter 4 Diodes .................................................................................................77 4.1 Introduction .............................................................................77 4.2 Semiconductor Material ..........................................................77 4.2.1 Conductivity and Energy Bands in Semiconductors .....77 4.2.2 Doping ........................................................................79 4.3 p–n Junction ............................................................................80 4.4 Diode Current–Voltage Characteristics I–V ............................81 4.4.1 Forward Bias ..............................................................81 4.4.2 Reverse Bias ...............................................................82 4.5 Different Types of Diodes .......................................................83 4.5.1 Semiconductor Diodes ...............................................83 4.5.2 Zener Diodes ..............................................................84 4.5.3 Avalanche Diodes .......................................................84 4.5.4 Light-Emitting Diodes ................................................84 4.5.5 Tunnel Diodes.............................................................84 4.5.6 Gunn Diodes ...............................................................84 4.5.7 Peltier Diodes .............................................................84 4.5.8 Photodiodes ................................................................85 4.5.9 Solar Cell ....................................................................85 4.5.10 Schottky Diodes .........................................................85 4.6 Diode Applications ..................................................................85 4.6.1 Rectification ...............................................................85 4.6.2 Half-Wave Rectifiers ..................................................86 4.6.3 Full-Wave Rectifiers ...................................................87 4.6.4 Single-Phase Bridge Rectifier Circuit ........................87 4.6.5 Diode as Voltage Limiter ...........................................92 4.6.6 Voltage Doubler ..........................................................93 4.7 Testing Diodes .........................................................................94 4.8 Key points ................................................................................94 Reference ............................................................................................94 Chapter 5 Bipolar Junction Transistor ................................................................95 5.1 Introduction .............................................................................95 5.2 Bipolar Junction Transistor ......................................................95 5.3 BJT Characteristics .................................................................98 5.3.1 Transistor Configurations ...........................................98 5.3.2 Input Characteristics ..................................................98 5.3.3 Output Characteristics ................................................98 x Contents 5.3.4 Data for a Typical NPN Transistor ...........................100 5.3.5 Rating and Selection of Operating Point ..................101 5.4 Gain Parameters of BJT: Relationship of α and β Parameters .............................................................................102 5.4.1 Common Base Connection .......................................102 5.4.2 Common Emitter Configuration...............................103 5.5 Testing Transistors .................................................................106 5.6 Efficient BJT as Amplification Device ..................................106 5.6.1 Emitter Injection Efficiency η ..................................108 5.6.2 Base Transport Factor χ............................................109 5.6.3 Punch-Through .........................................................111 5.7 Key Points ..............................................................................111 Reference ..........................................................................................111 Chapter 6 Field Effect Transistors ....................................................................113 6.1 Introduction ...........................................................................113 6.2 Fabrication of FET ................................................................113 6.3 Different Types of FET .........................................................114 6.3.1 Insulated-Gate FETs.................................................114 6.3.2 Junction Gate FETs ..................................................115 6.3.3 FET Circuit Symbols ................................................115 6.4 MOS FET ..............................................................................115 6.4.1 The MOS IGFET ......................................................115 6.4.2 MOS Operation ........................................................116 6.4.3 Accumulation ...........................................................117 6.4.4 Depletion ..................................................................118 6.4.5 Strong Inversion .......................................................119 6.4.6 Threshold Voltage, V ..............................................120 T 6.5 JFET Operation .....................................................................120 6.6 Static Characteristics of FET ................................................123 6.6.1 Input Characteristics ................................................123 6.6.2 Output Characteristics ..............................................123 6.6.3 Transfer Characteristics............................................123 6.7 Current–Voltage Characteristics ............................................123 6.7.1 Saturation .................................................................124 6.8 Key Points ..............................................................................126 Chapter 7 Bipolar Junction Transistor Biasing .................................................129 7.1 Introduction ...........................................................................129 7.2 Load Line ..............................................................................129 7.2.1 Cut Off......................................................................132 7.2.2 Saturation .................................................................132 7.3 Biasing a BJT .........................................................................133 7.3.1 Fixed Bias .................................................................133 7.3.2 Auto Bias ..................................................................137