AN OVERLOOKED DIMENSION OF THE KOREAN WAR: The Role of Christianity and American Missionaries in the Rise of Korean Nationalism, Anti-Colonialism, and Eventual Civil War, 1884-1953 A Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the Department of History The College of William and Mary in Virginia In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Kai Yin Allison Haga August 2007 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3268802 Copyright 2007 by Haga, Kai Yin Allison All rights reserved. INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ® UMI UMI Microform 3268802 Copyright 2007 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ©Copyright by Kai Yin Allison Haga All Rights Reserved 2007 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPROVAL SHEET This dissertation is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Allison Haga Approved by the Committee, May 2007 Edward P. Crapo Chair dg N. Canning Edward E. Pratt Priscilla Roberts, Professor The University of Hong Kong 11 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. DEDICATION To Ah Pa and Ah Ma And to Momo, Mom and Dad for all their unending love and support iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF MAPS xi ABSTRACT xii INTRODUCTION 2 PART I: Christianity in Korea and U.S.-Korean Relations before the Korean War CHAPTER 1: Christianity and the Rise of Modem Korean Nationalism 27 CHAPTER 2: Religious Factors in North Korea 110 CHAPTER 3: Religious Factors in South Korea 168 CHAPTER 4: Religious Anti-Communism and American Foreign Policy 220 PARTII: Christianity in Korea and U.S.-Korean Relations during the Korean War CHAPTER 5: The Outbreak of the Korean War 284 CHAPTER 6: Missionaries and Christians Living in the War Zone 334 CHAPTER 7: Occupation and Evacuation 394 CHAPTER 8: The Truce Talks and POW Controversy 448 CONCLUSION 518 APPENDIX 1 Tables 546 APPENDIX 2 Maps 569 BIBLIOGRAPHY 577 VITA 623 iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this dissertation is the result of the continuous inspiration, support, and encouragement of my professors, family, and friends. I am very grateful to my advisor, Professor Edward Crapol, who not only inspired me in studying the field of American foreign relations, but also supervised my research project even after his retirement. His patience, confidence, and unfailing encouragement have enabled me to pursue a career as a professional historian. As my academic mentor, his critique of my writing pushed me to think deeply and more critically of my work, so that I would be able to expand my area of interests and acquire a new body of knowledge of Korean- American relations. Professor Craig Canning’s suggestions and enthusiasm for this study as a contribution to the study of Korean history gave me great comfort after the years of lonesome research effort. His careful reading of my manuscripts and insightful comments helped me to deepen my understanding of Korea’s position in East Asia and its diplomatic relations with its neighbors. I also extend my appreciation to Professor Edward Pratt who read and critiqued my draft, enabling me to have my defense before the beginning of the summer session. This dissertation was further strengthened by the comments of Professor Priscilla Roberts, who was my mentor during my undergraduate study at The University of Hong Kong. It is a great honor to have her as the outside reader of this dissertation. My research also benefited greatly by the guidance of several professors from South Korea. Professor Young Ick Lew from Yonsei University and Professor Heung Soo Kim from Mokwon University read my draft and gave me their invaluable comments to improve the quality of the manuscript. I also need to express my deepest thanks for the kindness of three professors from Yonsei University. Professor Jung Joo Kim gave me her unfailing encouragement and support during my two research trips to Korea. Professor Jeong Min Suh helped me find useful materials and introduced me to other church historians in South Korea. Dr. Horace H. Underwood also provided me with Richard Underwood’s unpublished memoir upon my request. I am grateful for the Provost's Summer Research Fund I received to conduct research in the summer of 2000 and the fall of 2002 that enabled me to visit the major church and presidential archives in the United States. The Reves Center for International Studies also gave me an overseas travel grant, allowing me to do research in South Korea. I am particularly thankful to Rev. Dr. Marian McClure, the Director of the Worldwide Ministries Division of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), who gave me special permission to access record groups #140 and #197 in the Presbyterian Historical Society. I appreciate the assistance of several archivists: Nancy J. Taylor and staff of the Presbyterian Historical Society, Dale Patterson and staff of the United Methodist Church Archives, Dennis E. Bilger and staff of the Harry S. Truman Library, Thomas W. Branigar and staff of the Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Nancy M. Shader and staff of the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Myung-ju Kim and staff of the Yonsei Library Special Collection, Ashley Ecklund and staff of the Government Document Section of the McKeldin Library, University of Maryland. Staff of the National Archives at College v Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Park, MacArthur Memorial in Norfolk, and the National Assembly Library of Korea in Seoul, also offered me their services in finding useful documents. Outside of the history community, I have also received a great deal of help from friends and family. And I have made new friends during my research travels. Among them all, I would first like to thank those who assisted me during my research trips to Korea. With only a beginner’s grasp of the Korean language, I depended heavily on their translation help. Cheol Liu, Yong-ju Ho, Se-jung Seo, Suk-ha Hoe, and Juhey Jung all voluntarily translated many useful Korean academic publications and newspaper articles for me. Mary Kim, So-yoon Jong, and Yumi Jang assisted my document search for Korean-language documents at the archives. I am also grateful for the hospitality and encouragement from Pastor David Kim, the director of the University Bible Fellowship, Yonhee Center, during my stays in Korea. In America as well, many friends supported me. Joyce Wang, Kyle Chang, and Christy Fang provided me at various times with quiet places to write my dissertation. Joe Park in Maryland and Patrick, Katie, and Sabrina of the Writing Resource Center at Penn State Erie helped to proofread various chapters of my later drafts. In addition, many people at University Bible Fellowship Church of Washington gave me moral encouragement and support. I am particularly grateful for the love and sacrifices of my family. First, for my husband, Steve, whose patience and belief in my ability, gave me the strength to persevere through the challenges of this research. His extensive proofreading and comments on the organization and style of my writing were also invaluable. I am also thankful for my father and mother-in-law, Donald and Jo Marie Haga, who always love and support me during these years of hard work. I am very blessed to have Momo (my grandmother-in-law), Arthie Conoly, who took good care of me while I was spending months in doing research at the Presbyterian Archives in Philadelphia. And lastly, for my parents, Kwan-chuen Li and Dr. Siu-chun Cheung, M.D., who supported my decision to study Ph.D. in America, and who provided the financial support that made this dissertation possible. vi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1.1 Funding for Foreign Missionary work in East and Southeast Asia (Methodist Episcopal Church) 546 1.2 Comparison of the number of overall Christian converts in Korea and in Japan 546 1.3 The Growth of Protestant Christianity, 1905-1907 546 1.4 Comparison of the Methodist Ministry in Korea (1912) and in Japan (1918) 546 1.5 Number of Presbyterian Churches in 1910 547 1.6 Christianity in Korea: Basic Statistics in 1941 547 1.7 Number of Modem Schools, 1910 548 1.8 Number of Westerners in 1894 548 1.9 Signers of the Declaration of Independence (March 1, 1919) 548 1.10 Religious Affiliation of People Arrested During the March First Independence Movement 1919 549 1.11 The Growth of the Presbyterian Church before and after the 1919 Uprising 549 1.12 Korean Church Membership 549 2.1 Reported Membership in Religious Organizations, 1911-1944 550 2.2 The Provincial Distribution of the Young Friends’ Party 550 2.3 Religious Membership in Korea between 1939-1941 550 2.4a Percentage of Foreign Population in Korea 551 2.4b Distribution of North and South Korean Population (1941) 551 2.5 Major Christian Churches in Korea (1941) 551 2.6 Survey of Presbyterian Stations in 1940 551 vii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. 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Page 2.7a Proportion of Population Reached by the Church in Villages with Churches by Regions in 1925 (25 samples) 552 2.7b Landownership by General Farming Population and by Church Membership, Compared by Regions (35 villages) in 1925 552 2.8 Population Growth in the Southern Zone (1946-1948) 552 2.9 The State of Christianity in Korea at the Time of Annexation 553 2.10 1939 Statistics for Various Missions (Federal Council of Missionary Bodies) 553 3.1 Percentage of Christians in the AMG and First Republic (1946-1948) 554 3.2 Population Growth in the Southern Zone (1946-1948) 554 3.3 Population Growth in Major Southern Cities and Selected Ration Store Data in 1947 554 3.4 Statistical Summary of Civil Disturbances in South Korea during the Election Month (May 1-15, 1948) 555 4.1 Data of Billy Graham Crusades (1947-1954) 556 4.2a Religious Bodies - Church Membership (1926-1956) 556 4.2b Religious Bodies - Number of Churches and Membership (1947-1953) 557 4.2c Growth Rates (1947-1953) 557 5.1 Population of Major Cities in South Korea (1941-1947) 558 5.2 Statistics of the “Save the Nation Evangelistic Crusade” (April-May 1950) 558 5.3 Southern Presbyterian Missionaries who Stayed Behind 558 5.4 Foreign Civilians Held Captive by the North Koreans, 1950-1953 559 6.1 Foreign Civilians Held Captive by the North Koreas, 1950-53 560 6.2 Materials Donated by American Churches Distributed through the UN 560 viii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. 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