The Project Gutenberg eBook, An Introduction to the History of Science, by Walter Libby This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: An Introduction to the History of Science Author: Walter Libby Release Date: September 7, 2012 [eBook #40706] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 ***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE*** E-text prepared by Charlene Taylor, Paul Clark, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by Internet Archive/American Libraries (http://archive.org/details/americana) Note: Images of the original pages are available through Internet Archive/American Libraries. See http://archive.org/details/introductiontohi00libb Transcriber's Note: Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible. Some changes have been made. They are listed at the end of the text, apart from some changes of puctuation in the Index. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE BY WALTER LIBBY, M.A., Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY [Pg i] BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY The Riverside Press Cambridge COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY WALTER LIBBY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED The Riverside Press CAMBRIDGE. MASSACHUSETTS U. S. A TO MY STUDENTS OF THE LAST TWELVE YEARS IN THE CHICAGO AND PITTSBURGH DISTRICTS THIS BOOK IS INSCRIBED IN FURTHERANCE OF THE ENDEAVOR TO INCULCATE A DEMOCRATIC CULTURE, EVER MINDFUL OF THE DAILY TASK, NOT ALTOGETHER IGNORANT OF THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE PAST PREFACE The history of science has something to offer to the humblest intelligence. It is a means of imparting a knowledge of scientific facts and principles to unschooled minds. At the same time it affords a simple method of school instruction. Those who understand a business or an institution best, as a contemporary writer on finance remarks, are those who have made it or grown up with it, and the next best thing is to know how it has grown up, and then watch or take part in its actual working. Generally speaking, we know best what we know in its origins. The history of science is an aid in scientific research. It places the student in the current of scientific thought, and gives him a clue to the purpose and necessity of the theories he is required to master. It presents science as the constant pursuit of truth rather than the formulation of truth long since revealed; it shows science as progressive rather than fixed, dynamic rather than static, a growth to which each may contribute. It does not paralyze the self-activity of youth by the record of an infallible past. It is only by teaching the sciences in their historical development that the schools can be true to the two principles of modern education, that the sciences should occupy the foremost place in the curriculum and that the individual mind in its evolution should rehearse the history of civilization. The history of science should be given a larger place than at present in general history; for, as Bacon said, the history of the world without a history of learning is like a statue of Polyphemus with the eye out. The history of science studies the past for the sake of the future. It is a story of continuous progress. It is rich in biographical material. It shows the sciences in their interrelations, and saves the student from narrowness and premature specialization. It affords a unique approach to the study of philosophy. It gives new motive to the study of foreign languages. It gives an interest in the applications of knowledge, offers a clue to the complex civilization of the present, and renders the mind hospitable to new discoveries and inventions. The history of science is hostile to the spirit of caste. It shows the sciences rising from daily needs and occupations, formulated by philosophy, enriching philosophy, giving rise to new industries, which react in turn upon the sciences. The history of science reveals men of all grades of intelligence and of all social ranks coöperating in the cause of human progress. It is a basis of intellectual and social homogeneity. Science is international, English, Germans, French, Italians, Russians—all nations—contributing to advance the general interests. Accordingly, a survey of the sciences tends to increase mutual respect, and to heighten the humanitarian [Pg ii] [Pg iii] [Pg iv] [Pg v] [Pg vi] sentiment. The history of science can be taught to people of all creeds and colors, and cannot fail to enhance in the breast of every young man, or woman, faith in human progress and good-will to all mankind. This book is intended as a simple introduction, taking advantage of the interests of youth of from seventeen to twenty- two years of age (and their intellectual compeers) in order to direct their attention to the story of the development of the sciences. It makes no claim to be in any sense complete or comprehensive. It is, therefore, a psychological introduction, having the mental capacity of a certain class of readers always in view, rather than a logical introduction, which would presuppose in all readers both full maturity of intellect and considerable initial interest in the history of science. I cannot conclude this preface without thanking those who have assisted me in the preparation of this book—Sir William Osler, who read the first draft of the manuscript, and aided me with his counsel; Dr. Charles Singer, who read all the chapters in manuscript, and to whom I am indebted for advice in reference to the illustrations and for many other valuable suggestions; the officers of the Bodleian Library, whose courtesy was unfailing during the year I worked there; Professor Henry Crew, who helped in the revision of two of the chapters by his judicious criticism; Professor J. E. Rush, whose knowledge of bacteriology improved the chapter on Pasteur; Professor L. O. Grondahl, who read one of the chapters relating to the history of physics and suggested important emendations; and Dr. John A. Brashear, who contributed valuable information in reference to the activities of Samuel Pierpont Langley. I wish to express my gratitude also to Miss Florence Bonnet for aid in the correction of the manuscript. W. Libby. February 2, 1917. CONTENTS I. Science and Practical Needs—Egypt and Babylonia 1 II. The Influence of Abstract Thought—Greece: Aristotle 15 III. Scientific Theory Subordinated to Application—Rome: Vitruvius 30 IV. The Continuity of Science—The Medieval Church and the Arabs 43 V. The Classification of the Sciences—Francis Bacon 57 VI. Scientific Method—Gilbert, Galileo, Harvey, Descartes 72 VII. Science as Measurement—Tycho Brahe, Kepler, Boyle 86 VIII. Coöperation in Science—The Royal Society 99 IX. Science and the Struggle for Liberty—Benjamin Franklin 114 X. The Interaction of the Sciences—Werner, Hutton, Black, Hall, William Smith 129 XI. Science and Religion—Kant, Lambert, Laplace, Sir William Herschel 142 XII. The Reign of Law—Dalton, Joule 155 XIII. The Scientist—Sir Humphry Davy 170 XIV. Scientific Prediction—The Discovery of Neptune 184 XV. Science and Travel—The Voyage of the Beagle 197 XVI. Science and War—Pasteur, Lister 213 XVII. Science and Invention—Langley's Aeroplane 231 XVIII. Scientific Hypothesis—Radioactive Substances 245 XIX. The Scientific Imagination 258 XX. Science and Democratic Culture 270 Index 283 ILLUSTRATIONS Earliest Picture known of a Surgical Operation. Egypt, 2500 b.c. 6 St. Thomas Aquinas overcoming Averroës 54 Dr. Gilbert showing his Electrical Experiments to Queen Elizabeth and her Court 72 The Tichonic Quadrant 88 Wadham College, Oxford 104 Sir Isaac Newton 112 [Pg vii] [Pg viii] [Pg ix] [Pg x] [Pg xi] John Dalton collecting Marsh Gas 162 The First Successful Heavier-than-air Flying Machine 236 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE CHAPTER I SCIENCE AND PRACTICAL NEEDS—EGYPT AND BABYLONIA If you consult encyclopedias and special works in reference to the early history of any one of the sciences,—astronomy, geology, geometry, physiology, logic, or political science, for example,—you will find strongly emphasized the part played by the Greeks in the development of organized knowledge. Great, indeed, as we shall see in the next chapter, are the contributions to the growth of science of this highly rational and speculative people. It must be conceded, also, that the influence on Western science of civilizations earlier than theirs has come to us, to a considerable extent at least, through the channels of Greek literature. Nevertheless, if you seek the very origins of the sciences, you will inevitably be drawn to the banks of the Nile, and to the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates. Here, in Egypt, in Assyria and Babylonia, dwelt from very remote times nations whose genius was practical and religious rather than intellectual and theoretical, and whose mental life, therefore, was more akin to our own than was the highly evolved culture of the Greeks. Though more remote in time, the wisdom and practical knowledge of Thebes and Memphis, Nineveh and Babylon, are more readily comprehended by our minds than the difficult speculations of Athenian philosophy. Much that we have inherited from the earliest civilizations is so familiar, so homely, that we simply accept it, much as we may light, or air, or water, without analysis, without inquiry as to its origin, and without full recognition of how indispensable it is. Why are there seven days in the week, and not eight? Why are there sixty minutes in the hour, and why are there not sixty hours in the day? These artificial divisions of time are accepted so unquestioningly that to ask a reason for them may, to an indolent mind, seem almost absurd. This acceptance of a week of seven days and of an hour of sixty minutes (almost as if they were natural divisions of time like day and night) is owing to a tradition that is Babylonian in its origin. From the Old Testament (which is one of the greatest factors in preserving the continuity of human culture, and the only ancient book which speaks with authority concerning Babylonian history) we learn that Abraham, the progenitor of the Hebrews, migrated to the west from southern Babylonia about twenty-three hundred years before Christ. Even in that remote age, however, the Babylonians had established those divisions of time which are familiar to us. The seven days of the week were closely associated in men's thinking with the heavenly bodies. In our modern languages they are named after the sun, the moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn, which from the remotest times were personified and worshiped. Thus we see that the usage of making seven days a unit of time depends on the religious belief and astronomical science of a very remote civilization. The usage is so completely established that by the majority it is simply taken for granted. Another piece of commonplace knowledge—the cardinal points of the compass—may be accepted, likewise, without inquiry or without recognition of its importance. Unless thrown on your own resources in an unsettled country or on unknown waters, you may long fail to realize how indispensable to the practical conduct of life is the knowledge of east and west and north and south. In this matter, again, the records of ancient civilizations show the pains that were taken to fix these essentials of science. Modern excavations have demonstrated that the sides or the corners of the temples and palaces of Assyria and Babylonia were directed to the four cardinal points of the compass. In Egypt the pyramids, erected before 3000 b.c., were laid out with such strict regard to direction that the conjecture has been put forward that their main purpose was to establish, in a land of shifting sands, east and west and north and south. That conjecture seems extravagant; but the fact that the Phɶnicians studied astronomy merely because of its practical value in navigation, the early invention of the compass in China, the influence on discovery of the later improvements of the compass, make us realize the importance of the alleged purpose of the pyramids. Without fixed points, without something to go by, men, before they had acquired the elements of astronomy, were altogether at sea. As they advanced in knowledge they looked to the stars for guidance, especially to the pole star and the imperishable star- group of the northern heavens. The Egyptians even developed an apparatus for telling the time by reference to the stars —a star-clock similar in its purpose to the sundial. By the Egyptians, also, was carefully observed the season of the year at which certain stars and constellations were visible at dawn. This was of special importance in the case of Sirius, for its heliacal rising, that is, the period when it rose in conjunction with the sun, marked the coming of the Nile flood (so important in the lives of the inhabitants) and the beginning of a new year. Not unnaturally Sirius was an object of worship. One temple is said to have been so constructed as to face that part of the eastern horizon at which this star arose at the critical season of inundation. Of another temple we are told that only at sunset at the time of the summer solstice did the sun throw its rays throughout the edifice. The fact that astronomy in Egypt as in Babylonia, where the temples were observatories, was closely associated with religion confirms the view that this science was first cultivated because of its bearing on the practical needs of the people. The priests were the preservers of such wisdom as had been accumulated in the course of man's immemorial struggle with the forces of nature. [Pg xii] [Pg 1] [Pg 2] [Pg 3] [Pg 4] It is well known that geometry had its origin in the valley of the Nile, that it arose to meet a practical need, and that it was in the first place, as its name implies, a measurement of the earth—a crude surveying, employed in the restoration of boundaries obliterated by the annual inundations of the river. Egyptian geometry cared little for theory. It addressed itself to actual problems, such as determining the area of a square or triangular field from the length of the sides. To find the area of a circular field, or floor, or vessel, from the length of the diameter was rather beyond the science of 2000 b.c. This was, however, a practical problem which had to be solved, even if the solution were not perfect. The practice was to square the diameter reduced by one ninth. In all the Egyptian mathematics of which we have record there is to be observed a similar practical bent. In the construction of a temple or a pyramid not merely was it necessary to have regard to the points of the compass, but care must be taken to have the sides at right angles. This required the intervention of specialists, expert "rope-fasteners," who laid off a triangle by means of a rope divided into three parts, of three, four, and five units. The Babylonians followed much the same practice in fixing a right angle. In addition they learned how to bisect and trisect the angle. Hence we see in their designs and ornaments the division of the circle into twelve parts, a division which does not appear in Egyptian ornamentation till after the incursion of Babylonian influence. There is no need, however, to multiply examples; the tendency of all Egyptian mathematics was, as already stated, concerned with the practical solution of concrete problems—mensuration, the cubical contents of barns and granaries, the distribution of bread, the amounts of food required by men and animals in given numbers and for given periods of time, the proportions and the angle of elevation (about 52°) of a pyramid, etc. Moreover, they worked simple equations involving one unknown, and had a hieroglyph for a million (the drawing of a man overcome with wonder), and another for ten million. The Rhind mathematical papyrus in the British Museum is the main source of our present knowledge of early Egyptian arithmetic, geometry, and of what might be called their trigonometry and algebra. It describes itself as "Instructions for arriving at the knowledge of all things, and of things obscure, and of all mysteries." It was copied by a priest about 1600 b.c.—the classical period of Egyptian culture—from a document seven hundred years older. EARLIEST PICTURE KNOWN OF A SURGICAL OPERATION. EGYPT, 2500 B.C. Medicine, which is almost certain to develop in the early history of a people in response to their urgent needs, has been justly called the foster-mother of many sciences. In the records of Egyptian medical practice can be traced the origin of chemistry, anatomy, physiology, and botany. Our most definite information concerning Egyptian medicine belongs to the same general period as the mathematical document to which we have just referred. It is true something is known of remoter times. The first physician of whom history has preserved the name, I-em-hetep (He-who-cometh-in-peace), lived about 4500 b.c. Recent researches have also brought to light, near Memphis, pictures, not later than 2500 b.c., of surgical operations. They were found sculptured on the doorposts at the entrance to the tomb of a high official of one of the Pharaohs. The patients, as shown in the accompanying illustration, are suffering pain, and, according to the inscription, one cries out, "Do this [and] let me go," and the other, "Don't hurt me so!" Our most satisfactory data in reference to Egyptian medicine are derived, however, from the Ebers papyrus. This document displays some little knowledge of the pulse in different parts of the body, of a relation between the heart and the other organs, and of the passage of the breath to the lungs (and heart). It contains a list of diseases. In the main it is a collection of prescriptions for the eyes, ears, stomach, to reduce tumors, effect purgation, etc. There is no evidence of a tendency to homeopathy, but mental healing seems to have been called into play by the use of numerous spells and incantations. Each prescription, as in medical practice to-day, contains as a rule several ingredients. Among the seven hundred recognized remedies are to be noted poppy, castor-oil, gentian, colchicum, squills, and many other familiar medicinal plants, as well [Pg 5] [Pg 6] [Pg 7] as bicarbonate of soda, antimony, and salts of lead and copper. The fat of the lion, hippopotamus, crocodile, goose, serpent, and wild goat, in equal parts, served as a prescription for baldness. In the interests of his art the medical practitioner ransacked the resources of organic and inorganic nature. The Ebers papyrus shows that the Egyptians knew of the development of the beetle from the egg, of the blow-fly from the larva, and of the frog from the tadpole. Moreover, for precision in the use of medicaments weights of very small denominations were employed. The Egyptian embalmers relied on the preservative properties of common salt, wine, aromatics, myrrh, cassia, etc. By the use of linen smeared with gum they excluded all putrefactive agencies. They understood the virtue of extreme dryness in the exercise of their antiseptic art. Some knowledge of anatomy was involved in the removal of the viscera, and much more in a particular method they followed in removing the brain. In their various industries the Egyptians made use of gold, silver, bronze (which on analysis is found to consist of copper, tin, and a trace of lead, etc.), metallic iron and copper and their oxides, manganese, cobalt, alum, cinnabar, indigo, madder, brass, white lead, lampblack. There is clear evidence that they smelted iron ore as early as 3400 b.c. maintaining a blast by means of leather tread-bellows. They also contrived to temper the metal, and to make helmets, swords, lance-points, ploughs, tools, and other implements of iron. Besides metallurgy they practiced the arts of weaving, dyeing, distillation. They produced soap (from soda and oil), transparent and colored glass, enamel, and ceramics. They were skilled in the preparation of leather. They showed aptitude for painting, and for the other fine arts. They were expert builders, and possessed the engineering skill to erect obelisks weighing hundreds of tons. They cultivated numerous vegetables, grains, fruits, and flowers. They had many domestic animals. In seeking the satisfaction of their practical needs they laid the foundation of geometry, botany, chemistry (named, as some think, from the Egyptian Khem, the god of medicinal herbs), and other sciences. But their practical achievements far transcended their theoretical formulations. To all time they will be known as an artistic, noble, and religious people, who cherished their dead and would not allow that the good and beautiful and great should altogether pass away. Excavations in Assyria and Babylonia, especially since 1843, have brought to our knowledge an ancient culture stretching back four or five thousand years before the beginning of the Christian era. The records of Assyria and Babylonia, like those of Egypt, are fragmentary and still in need of interpretation. Here again, however, it is the fundamental, the indispensable, the practical forms of knowledge that stand revealed rather than the theoretical, speculative, and purely intellectual. By the Babylonian priests the heavens were made the object of expert observation as early as 3800 b.c. The length of the year, the length of the month, the coming of the seasons, the course of the sun in the heavens, the movements of the planets, the recurrence of eclipses, comets, and meteors, were studied with particular care. One motive was the need of a measurement of time, the same motive as underlies the common interest in the calendar and almanac. It was found that the year contained more than 365 days, the month (synodic) more than 29 days, 12 hours, and 44 minutes. The sun's apparent diameter was contained 720 times in the ecliptic, that is, in the apparent path of the sun through the heavens. Like the Egyptians, the Babylonians took special note of the stars and star-groups that were to be seen at dawn at different times of the year. These constellations, lying in the imaginary belt encircling the heavens on either side of the ecliptic, bore names corresponding to those we have adopted for the signs of the zodiac,—Balance, Ram, Bull, Twins, Scorpion, Archer, etc. The Babylonian astronomers also observed that the successive vernal (or autumnal) equinoxes follow each other at intervals of a few seconds less than a year. A second motive that influenced the Babylonian priests in studying the movements of the heavenly bodies was the hope of foretelling events. The planets, seen to shift their positions with reference to the other heavenly bodies, were called messengers, or angels. The appearance of Mars, perhaps on account of its reddish color, was associated in their imaginations with war. Comets, meteors, and eclipses were considered as omens portending pestilence, national disaster, or the fate of kings. The fortunes of individuals could be predicted from a knowledge of the aspect of the heavens at the hour of their birth. This interest in astrology, or divination by means of the stars, no doubt stimulated the priests to make careful observations and to preserve religiously the record of astronomical phenomena. It was even established that there is a cycle in which eclipses, solar and lunar, repeat themselves, a period (saros) somewhat more than eighteen years and eleven months. Moreover, from the Babylonians we derive some of our most sublime religious and scientific conceptions. They held that strict law governs the apparently erratic movements of the heavenly bodies. Their creation myth proclaims: "Merodach next arranged the stars in order, along with the sun and moon, and gave them laws which they were never to transgress." The mathematical knowledge of the Babylonians is related on the one hand to their astronomy and on the other to their commercial pursuits. They possessed highly developed systems of measuring, weighing, and counting—processes, which, as we shall see in the sequel, are essential to scientific thought. About 2300 b.c. they had multiplication tables running from 1 to 1350, which were probably used in connection with astronomical calculations. Unlike the Egyptians they had no symbol for a million, though the "ten thousand times ten thousand" of the Bible (Daniel vii: 10) may indicate that the conception of even larger numbers was not altogether foreign to them. They counted in sixties as well as in tens. Their hours and minutes had each sixty subdivisions. They divided the circle into six parts and into six-times-sixty subdivisions. Tables of squares and cubes discovered in southern Babylonia were interpreted correctly only on a sexagesimal basis, the statement that 1 plus 4 is the square of 8 implying that the first unit is 60. As we have already seen, considerable knowledge of geometry is apparent in Babylonian designs and constructions. According to a Greek historian of the fifth century b.c., there were no physicians at Babylon, while a later Greek [Pg 8] [Pg 9] [Pg 10] [Pg 11] historian (of the first century b.c.) speaks of a Babylonian university which had attained celebrity, and which is now believed to have been a school of medicine. Modern research has made known letters by a physician addressed to an Assyrian king in the seventh century b.c. referring to the king's chief physician, giving directions for the treatment of a bleeding from the nose from which a friend of the prince was suffering, and reporting the probable recovery of a poor fellow whose eyes were diseased. Other letters from the same general period mention the presence of physicians at court. We have even recovered the name (Ilu-bani) of a physician who lived in southern Babylonia about 2700 b.c. The most interesting information, however, in reference to Babylonian medicine dates from the time of Hammurabi, a contemporary of the patriarch Abraham. It appears from the code drawn up in the reign of that monarch that the Babylonian surgeons operated in case of cataract; that they were entitled to twenty silver shekels (half the sum for which Joseph was sold into slavery, and equivalent to seven or eight dollars) for a successful operation; and that in case the patient lost his life or his sight as the result of an unsuccessful operation, the surgeon was condemned to have his hands amputated. The Babylonian records of medicine like those of astronomy reveal the prevalence of many superstitious beliefs. The spirits of evil bring maladies upon us; the gods heal the diseases that afflict us. The Babylonian books of medicine contained strange interminglings of prescription and incantation. The priests studied the livers of sacrificial animals in order to divine the thoughts of the gods—a practice which stimulated the study of anatomy. The maintenance of state menageries no doubt had a similar influence on the study of the natural history of animals. The Babylonians were a nation of agriculturists and merchants. Sargon of Akkad, who founded the first Semitic empire in Asia (3800 b.c.), was brought up by an irrigator, and was himself a gardener. Belshazzar, the son of the last Babylonian king, dealt in wool on a considerable scale. Excavation in the land watered by the Tigris and Euphrates tells the tale of the money-lenders, importers, dyers, fullers, tanners, saddlers, smiths, carpenters, shoemakers, stonecutters, ivory-cutters, brickmakers, porcelain-makers, potters, vintners, sailors, butchers, engineers, architects, painters, sculptors, musicians, dealers in rugs, clothing and fabrics, who contributed to the culture of this great historic people. It is not surprising that science should find its matrix in so rich a civilization. The lever and the pulley, lathes, picks, saws, hammers, bronze operating-lances, sundials, water-clocks, the gnomon (a vertical pillar for determining the sun's altitude) were in use. Gem-cutting was highly developed as early as 3800 b.c. The Babylonians made use of copper hardened with antimony and tin, lead, incised shells, glass, alabaster, lapis-lazuli, silver, and gold. Iron was not employed before the period of contact with Egyptian civilization. Their buildings were furnished with systems of drains and flushes that seem to us altogether modern. Our museums are enriched by specimens of their handicraft—realistic statuary in dolerite of 2700 b.c.; rock crystal worked to the form of a plano- convex lens, 3800 b.c.; a beautiful silver vase of the period 3950 b.c.; and the head of a goat in copper about 4000 b.c. Excavation has not disclosed nor scholarship interpreted the full record of this ancient people in the valley of the Tigris and the Euphrates, not far from the Gulf of Persia, superior in religious inspiration, not inferior in practical achievements to the Egyptians. Both these great nations of antiquity, however, failed to carry the sciences that arose in connection with their arts to a high degree of generalization. That was reserved for another people of ancient times, namely, the Greeks. REFERENCES F. H. Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine. H. V. Hilprecht, Excavations in Assyria and Babylonia. Max Neuburger, History of Medicine. A. H. Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians. CHAPTER II THE INFLUENCE OF ABSTRACT THOUGHT—GREECE: ARISTOTLE No sooner did the Greeks turn their attention to the sciences which had originated in Egypt and Babylonia than the characteristic intellectual quality of the Hellenic genius revealed itself. Thales (640-546 b.c.), who is usually regarded as the first of the Greek philosophers, was the founder of Greek geometry and astronomy. He was one of the seven "wise men" of Greece, and might be called the Benjamin Franklin of antiquity, for he was interested in commerce, famous for political sagacity, and honored for his disinterested love of general truth. His birthplace was Miletus, a Greek city on the coast of Asia Minor. There is evidence that he acquired a knowledge of Babylonian astronomy. The pursuit of commerce carried him to Egypt, and there he gained a knowledge of geometry. Not only so, but he was able to advance this study by generalizing and formulating its truths. For the Egyptians, geometry was concerned with surfaces and dimensions, with areas and cubical contents; for the Greek, with his powers of abstraction, it became a study of line [Pg 12] [Pg 13] [Pg 14] [Pg 15] and angle. For example, Thales saw that the angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal, and that when two straight lines cut one another the vertically opposite angles are equal. However, after having established general principles, he showed himself capable of applying them to the solution of particular problems. In the presence of the Egyptian priests, to which class he was solely indebted for instruction, Thales demonstrated a method of measuring the height of a pyramid by reference to its shadow. And again, on the basis of his knowledge of the relation of the sides of a triangle to its angles, he developed a practical rule for ascertaining the distance of a ship from the shore. The philosophical mind of Thales laid hold, no doubt, of some of the essentials of astronomical science. The particulars usually brought forward to prove his originality tend rather to show his indebtedness to the Babylonians. The number of days in the year, the length of the synodic month, the relation of the sun's apparent diameter to the ecliptic, the times of recurrence of eclipses, were matters that had long been known to the Babylonians, as well as to the Chinese. However, he aroused great interest in astronomy among the Greeks by the prediction of a solar eclipse. This was probably the eclipse of 585 b.c., which interrupted a fierce battle between the Medes and the Lydians. The advice of Thales to mariners to steer by the Lesser Bear, as nearer the pole, rather than by the Great Bear, shows also that in his astronomical studies as in his geometrical he was not indifferent to the applications of scientific knowledge. In fact, some writers maintain that Thales was not a philosopher at all, but rather an astronomer and engineer. We know very little of his purely speculative thought. We do know, however, that he arrived at a generalization—fantastic to most minds—that all things are water. Attempts have been made to add to this statement, and to explain it away. Its great interest for the history of thought lies in the fact that it is the result of seeking the constant in the variable, the unitary principle in the multiple phenomena of nature. This abstract and general view (though perhaps suggested by the Babylonian belief that the world originated in a watery chaos, or by the teaching of Egyptian priests) was preëminently Greek, and was the first of a series of attempts to discover the basis or origin of all things. One of the followers of Thales taught that air was the fundamental principle; while Heraclitus, anticipating to some extent modern theories of the origin of the cosmos, declared in favor of a fiery vapor subject to ceaseless change. Empedocles, the great philosopher- physician, first set forth the doctrine of the four elements—earth, air, fire, and water. For Democritus indivisible particles or atoms are fundamental to all phenomena. It is evident that the theory of Thales was a starting point for Greek abstract thought, and that his inclination to seek out principles and general laws accounts for his influence on the development both of philosophy and the sciences. Pythagoras, on the advice of Thales, visited Egypt in the pursuit of mathematics. There is reason to believe that he also visited Babylonia. For him and his followers mathematics became a philosophy—almost a religion. They had discovered (by experimenting with the monochord, the first piece of physical-laboratory apparatus, consisting of a tense harpstring with a movable bridge) the effect on the tone of the string of a musical instrument when the length is reduced by one half, and also that strings of like thickness and under equal tension yield harmonious tones when their lengths are related as 1:2, 2:3, 3:4, 4:5. The Pythagoreans drew from this the extravagant inference that the heavenly bodies would be in distance from the earth as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. Much of their theory must seem to the modern mind merely fanciful and unsupported speculation. At the same time it is only just to this school of philosophers to recognize that their assumption that simple mathematical relationships govern the phenomena of nature has had an immense influence on the advance of the sciences. Whether their fanaticism for number was owing to the influence of Egyptian priests or had an Oriental origin, it gave to the Pythagoreans an enthusiasm for pure mathematics. They disregarded the bearing of their science on the practical needs of life. Old problems like squaring the circle, trisecting the angle, and doubling the cube, were now attempted in a new spirit and with fresh vigor. The first, second, and fourth books of Euclid are largely of Pythagorean origin. For solid geometry as a science we are also indebted to this sect of number-worshipers. One of them (Archytas, 428-347 b.c., a friend of Plato) was the first to apply geometry to mechanics. We see again here, as in the case of Thales, that the love of abstract thought, the pursuit of science as science, did not interfere with ultimate practical applications. Plato (429-347 b.c.), like many other Greek philosophers, traveled extensively, visiting Asia Minor, Egypt, and Lower Italy, where Pythagorean influence was particularly strong. His chief interest lay in speculation. For him there were two worlds, the world of sense and the world of ideas. The senses deceive us; therefore, the philosopher should turn his back upon the world of sensible impressions, and develop the reason. In his Dialogues he outlined a course of training and study, the professed object of which was to educate a class of philosophers. (Strange to say, Plato's curriculum, planned originally for the intellectual élite, still dictates in our schools the education of millions of boys and girls whose careers do not call for a training merely of the reason.) Over the porch of his school, the Academy at Athens, were inscribed the words, "Let no one who is unacquainted with geometry enter here." It was not because it was useful in everyday life that Plato laid such insistence on this study, but because it increased the students' powers of abstraction and trained the mind to correct and vigorous thinking. From his point of view the chief good of geometry is lost unless we can through it withdraw the mind from the particular and the material. He delighted in clearness of conception. His main scientific interest was in astronomy and mathematics. We owe to him the definition of a line as "length without breadth," and the formulation of the axiom, "Equals subtracted from equals leave equals." Plato had an immediate influence in stimulating mathematical studies, and has been called a maker of mathematicians. Euclid, who was active at Alexandria toward the end of the fourth century b.c., was not one of Plato's immediate disciples but shared the great philosopher's point of view. The story is told that one of his pupils, arrived perhaps at the [Pg 16] [Pg 17] [Pg 18] [Pg 19] [Pg 20] pons asinorum, asked, "What do I get by learning these things?" Euclid, calling his servant, said, "Give him sixpence, since he must make gain out of what he learns." Adults were also found, even among the nimble-witted Greeks, to whom abstract reasoning was not altogether congenial. This is attested by the familiar story of Ptolemy, King of Egypt, who once asked Euclid whether geometry could not be learned in some easier way than by studying the geometer's book, The Elements. To this the schoolmaster replied, "There is no royal road to geometry." For the academic intelligence abstract and abstruse mathematics are tonic and an end in themselves. As already stated, their ultimate practical value is also immense. One of Plato's associates, working under his direction, investigated the curves produced by cutting cones of different kinds in a certain plane. These curves—the ellipse, the parabola, hyperbola—play a large part in the subsequent history of astronomy and mechanics. Another Platonist made the first measurement of the earth's circumference. Aristotle, the greatest pupil of Plato, was born at Stagira in 384 b.c. He came of a family of physicians, was trained for the medical profession, and had his attention early directed to natural phenomena. He entered the Academy at Athens about 367 b.c., and studied there till the death of Plato twenty years later. He was a diligent but, as was natural, considering the character of his early education, by no means a passive student. Plato said that Aristotle reacted against his instructor as a vigorous colt kicks the mother that nourishes it. The physician's son did not accept without modification the view that the philosopher should turn his back upon the things of sense. He had been trained in the physical science of the time, and believed in the reality of concrete things. At the same time he absorbed what he found of value in his master's teachings. He thought that science did not consist in a mere study of individual things, but that we must pass on to a formulation of general principles and then return to a study of the concrete. His was a great systematizing intellect, which has left its imprint on nearly every department of knowledge. Physical astronomy, physical geography, meteorology, physics, chemistry, geology, botany, anatomy, physiology, embryology, and zoölogy were enriched by his teaching. It was through him that logic, ethics, psychology, rhetoric, æsthetics, political science, zoölogy (especially ichthyology), first received systematic treatment. As a great modern philosopher has said, Aristotle pressed his way through the mass of things knowable, and subjected its diversity to the power of his thought. No wonder that for ages he was known as "The Philosopher," master of those who know. His purpose was to comprehend, to define, to classify the phenomena of organic and inorganic nature, to systematize the knowledge of his own time. Twenty years' apprenticeship in the school of Plato had sharpened his logical powers and added to his stock of general ideas, but had not taught him to distrust his senses. When we say that our eyes deceive us, we really confess that we have misinterpreted the data that our sight has furnished. Properly to know involves the right use of the senses as well as the right use of reason. The advance of science depends on the development both of speculation and observation. Aristotle advised investigators to make sure of the facts before seeking the explanation of the facts. Where preconceived theory was at variance with observed facts, the former must of course give way. Though it has been said that while Plato was a dreamer, Aristotle was a thinker, yet it must be acknowledged in qualification that Plato often showed genuine knowledge of natural phenomena in anatomy and other departments of study, and that Aristotle was carried away at times by his own presuppositions, or failed to bring his theories to the test of observation. The Stagirite held that the velocity of falling bodies is proportional to their weight, that the function of the diaphragm is to divide the region of the nobler from that of the animal passions, and that the brain is intended to act in opposition to the heart, the brain being formed of earthy and watery material, which brings about a cooling effect. The theory of the four elements —the hot, the cold, the moist, the dry—led to dogmatic statements with little attempt at verification. From the standpoint of modern studies it is easy to point out the mistakes of Aristotle even. Science is progressive, not infallible. In his own time he was rather reproached for what was considered an undignified and sordid familiarity with observed facts. His critics said that having squandered his patrimony, he had served in the army, and, failing there, had become a seller of drugs. His observations on the effects of heat seem to have been drawn from the common processes of the home and the workshop. Even in the ripening of fruits heat appears to him to have a cooking effect. Heat distorts articles made of potters' clay after they have been hardened by cold. Again we find him describing the manufacture of potash and of steel. He is not disdainful of the study of the lower animals, but invites us to investigate all forms in the expectancy of discovering something natural and beautiful. In a similar spirit of scientific curiosity the Aristotelian work The Problems studies the principle of the lever, the rudder, the wheel and axle, the forceps, the balance, the beam, the wedge, as well as other mechanical principles. In Aristotle, in fact, we find a mind exceptionally able to form clear ideas, and at the same time to observe the rich variety of nature. He paid homage both to the multiplicity and the uniformity of nature, the wealth of the phenomena and the simplicity of the law explaining the phenomena. Many general and abstract ideas (category, energy, entomology, essence, mean between extremes, metaphysics, meteorology, motive, natural history, principle, syllogism) have through the influence of Aristotle become the common property of educated people the world over. Plato was a mathematician and an astronomer. Aristotle was first and foremost a biologist. His books treated the history of animals, the parts of animals, the locomotion of animals, the generation of animals, respiration, life and death, length and shortness of life, youth and old age. His psychology is, like that of the present day, a biological psychology. In his contributions to biological science is manifested his characteristic inclination to be at once abstract and concrete. His works display a knowledge of over five hundred living forms. He dissected specimens of fifty different species of animals. One might mention especially his minute knowledge of the sea-urchin, of the murex (source of the famous Tyrian dye), of the chameleon, of the habits of the torpedo, the so-called fishing-frog, and nest-making fishes, as well as of the manner of reproduction of whales and certain species of sharks. One of his chief contributions to anatomy is the [Pg 21] [Pg 22] [Pg 23] [Pg 24] description of the heart and of the arrangement of the blood-vessels. A repugnance to the dissection of the human body seems to have checked to some extent his curiosity in reference to the anatomy of man, but he was acquainted with the structure of the internal ear, the passage leading from the pharynx to the middle ear, and the two outer membranes of the brain of man. Aristotle's genius did not permit him to get lost in the mere details of observed phenomena. He recognized resemblances and differences between the various species, classified animals as belonging to two large groups, distinguished whales and dolphins from fishes, recognized the family likeness of the domestic pigeon, the wood pigeon, the rock pigeon, and the turtle dove. He laid down the characteristics of the class of invertebrates to which octopus and sepia belong. Man takes a place in Aristotle's system of nature as a social animal, the highest type of the whole series of living beings, characterized by certain powers of recall, reason, deliberation. Of course it was not to be expected that Aristotle should work out a fully satisfactory classification of all the varieties of plants and animals known to him. Yet his purpose and method mark him as the father of natural science. He had the eye to observe and the mind to grasp the relationships and the import of what he observed. His attempt to classify animals according to the nature of their teeth (dentition) has been criticized as unsuccessful, but this principle of classification is still of use, and may be regarded as typical of his mind, at once careful and comprehensive. One instance of Aristotle's combining philosophical speculation with acute observation of natural phenomena is afforded by his work on generation and development. He knew that the transmission of life deserves special study as the predominant function of the various species of plants and animals. Deformed parents may have well-formed offspring. Children may resemble grandparents rather than parents. It is only toward the close of its development that the embryo exhibits the characteristics of its parent species. Aristotle traced with some care the embryological development of the chick from the fourth day of incubation. His knowledge of the propagation of animals was, however, not sufficient to make him reject the belief in spontaneous generation from mud, sand, foam, and dew. His errors are readily comprehensible, as, for example, in attributing spontaneous generation to eels, the habits and mode of reproduction of which only recent studies have made fully known. In regard to generation, as in other scientific fields, the philosophic mind of Aristotle anticipated modern theories, and also raised general questions only to be solved by later investigation of the facts. Only one indication need be given of the practical results that flowed from Aristotle's scientific work. In one of his writings he has stated that the sphericity of the earth can be observed from the fact that its shadow on the moon at the time of eclipse is an arc. That it is both spherical and small in comparison with the heavenly bodies appears, moreover, from this, that stars visible in Egypt are invisible in countries farther north; while stars always above the horizon in northern countries are seen to set from countries to the south. Consequently the earth is not only spherical but also not large; otherwise this phenomenon would not present itself on so limited a change of position on the part of the observer. "It seems, therefore, not incredible that the region about the Pillars of Hercules [Gibraltar] is connected with that of India, and that there is thus only one ocean." It is known that this passage from The Philosopher influenced Columbus in his undertaking to reach the Orient by sailing west from the coast of Spain. We must pass over Aristotle's observation of a relationship (homology) between the arms of man, the forelegs of quadrupeds, the wings of birds, and the pectoral fins of fishes, as well as many other truths to which his genius for generalization led him. In the field of botany Aristotle had a wide knowledge of natural phenomena, and raised general questions as to mode of propagation, nourishment, relation of plants to animals, etc. His pupil and lifelong friend, and successor as leader of the Peripatetic school of philosophy, Theophrastus, combined a knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, botany, and mineralogy. His History of Plants describes about five hundred species. At the same time he treats the general principles of botany, the distribution of plants, the nourishment of the plant through leaf as well as root, the sexuality of date palm and terebinth. He lays great stress on the uses of plants. His classification of plants is inferior to Aristotle's classification of animals. His views in reference to spontane...