An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology: Processes and disorders is a comprehensive introductory textbook for undergraduate students. The third edition of this well-established text has been completely revised and updated to cover all the key areas of cognition, including perception, attention, memory, thinking and language. Uniquely, alongside chapters on normal cognitive function, there are chapters on related clinical disorders (agnosia, amnesia, thought disorder and aphasia) which help to provide a thorough insight into the nature of cognition. Key features: (cid:114)(cid:1) Completely revised and updated throughout to provide a compre- hensive overview of current thinking in the field (cid:114)(cid:1) Accessibly written and including new authors, including Sophie Scott, Tom Manly, Hayley Ness and Elizabeth Styles, all established experts in their field (cid:114)(cid:1) A new chapter on emotion and cognition, written by Michael Eysenck, the leading authority in the field (cid:114)(cid:1) Greater coverage of neuropsychological disorders, with additional material from the latest brain imaging research that has completely revolutionized neuropsychology (cid:114)(cid:1) Specially designed textbook features, chapter summaries, further reading and a glossary of key terms (cid:114)(cid:1) A companion website featuring an extensive range of online resources for both teachers and students. An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology is written to cover all levels of ability and includes numerous figures and illustrations to assist learning. The book has sufficient depth to appeal to the most able students, while the clear and accessible writing style will help students who find the material difficult. It will appeal to all undergraduate students of psychology, and also medical students and those studying in related clinical professions such as nursing. David Groome was formerly Principal Lecturer and Senior Academic in Psychology at the University of Westminster, where he worked from 1970 to 2011. He retired from teaching in August 2011 but continues to carry out research and write books. His research interests include cognition and memory, and their relationship with clinical disorders. He has published a number of research papers on these topics and is the co-author of four previous textbooks. Advance praise for the new edition of An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology: ‘A highly useful text which helpfully explains the associated disorders in all the key subject areas of cognitive psychology.’ – Parveen Bhatarah, School of Psychology, London Metropolitan University, UK ‘An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology comprehensively and exhaustively covers the basics and main topics of cognitive psychology. The authors are all experts in their research areas, and the overall content of the book is informative, up-to-date and clearly structured.’ – Wolfgang Minker, Institute of Communications Engineering, Ulm University, Germany ‘This book is a highly readable introduction to the major figures and studies in cognitive research. The visuals and summaries included throughout will help students process and understand all of the important information, whilst also provoking discussions surrounding controversial issues in psychology and learning.’ – Rosalind Horowitz, College of Education and Human Development, The University of Texas at San Antonio, USA ‘Any student wishing to understand basic principles in cognition alongside disorderly behaviour will find this a useful alternative to other introductory cognitive textbooks on the market today. The divergence in basic cognitive function will capture student attention while providing them with a solid foundation.’ – Karla A. Lassonde, Minnesota State University, Mankato, USA ‘I am very impressed with the distinctive approach taken to cognitive psychology in this textbook, where each topic is explored through the lenses of behavioral research, computer models, clinical neuropsychology and neuroscience. I appreciate the effort that the authors make to integrate neuroscience and neuropsychology, with intriguing case studies and the coverage of disorders skillfully integrated with the rest of the text.’ – Erik Nilsen, Department of Psychology, Lewis and Clark College, USA ‘An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology provides an up-to-date, topical and accessible overview of this core area of psychology. The coverage of topics is extensive and there is an excellent balance of theory, research and application in the treatment of each area. Three aspects of this text stand out: the multi- author approach that provides a variety of perspectives from a range of experts; a strong consideration of disorders in cognition, an important, often ignored, aspect of the discipline of great interest to students; and finally, the chapter on cognition and emotion, an important topic rarely covered in texts of this type, is a welcome addition.’ – John Reece, School of Health Sciences, RMIT University, Australia ‘With a unique blend of cognition and clinical (neuro)psychology, this book integrates a comprehensive introduction to the core areas of experimental cognitive psychology with a nuanced review of the cognitive aspects of clinical disorders. The clinical discussion avoids unhelpful syndrome pigeon-holing, and brings alive a topic that many students can find a bit dry.’ – Ullrich Ecker, The University of Western Australia, Australia ‘This new edition has been updated throughout to include the latest cutting-edge research. Its refreshing approach combines both neuropsychology and cognitive psychology in alternating chapters making it relevant to students of cognitive psychology, neuropsychology or medicine. The book is clearly organized and accessible despite the enormous breadth that it covers.’ – Michael D. Patterson, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore ‘This is a very comprehensive introduction to cognitive psychology with a particular focus on disorders of cognition. The book provides an integrated approach to illustrate how the human mind works through introductions to both normal and disordered cognitive functions. A wide range of topics with different approaches, including experimental and computational modelling approaches, alongside the inclusion of materials from cognitive neuroscience and neuropsychology, will enhance students’ understanding of how the brain gives rise to the mind.’ – Janet H. Hsiao, Department of Psychology, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong AN INTRODUCTION TO Cognitive Psychology Processes and disorders Third Edition David Groome With Nicola Brace, Graham Edgar, Helen Edgar, Michael Eysenck, Tom Manly, Hayley Ness, Graham Pike, Sophie Scott and Elizabeth Styles Third edition published 2014 by Psychology Press 27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex BN3 2FA and by Psychology Press 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Psychology Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2014 David Groome, Nicola Brace, Graham Edgar, Helen Edgar, Michael Eysenck, Tom Manly, Hayley Ness, Graham Pike, Sophie Scott, Elizabeth Styles The right of David Groome, Nicola Brace, Graham Edgar, Helen Edgar, Michael Eysenck, Tom Manly, Hayley Ness, Graham Pike, Sophie Scott, and Elizabeth Styles to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. First edition published by Psychology Press 1999 Second edition published by Psychology Press 2006 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-1-84872-091-6 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-84872-092-3 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-87155-4 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon by Book Now Ltd, London Contents List of illustrations xiv Authors xxi Preface xxiii Acknowledgements xxiv 1. INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2 David Groome 1.1 Cognitive processes 3 A definition of cognitive psychology 3 Stages of cognitive processing 3 Approaches to the study of cognition 4 1.2 Experimental cognitive psychology 6 The first cognitive psychologists 6 The rise and fall of behaviourism 6 Gestalt and schema theories 7 Top-down and bottom-up processing 9 1.3 Computer models of information processing 10 Computer analogies and computer modelling of brain functions 10 Feature detectors 10 The limited-capacity processor model 12 1.4 Cognitive neuroscience and neuropsychology 12 The structure and function of the brain 12 Information storage in the brain 15 1.5 Automatic processing 17 Automatic versus controlled processing 17 Conscious awareness 19 1.6 Minds, brains and computers 22 Integrating the main approaches to cognition 22 Summary 22 Further reading 23 2. PERCEPTION 24 Graham Edgar, Helen Edgar and Graham Pike 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Visual perception 25 Theories of perception – schemas and template matching 25 The Gestalt approach 27 Feature-extraction theories 28 Marr’s computational theory 29 vi Contents Biederman’s recognition-by-components approach 30 Parallel distributed processing approaches 30 Visual illusions 31 The difference between sensation and perception 36 ‘Looked but failed to see’ (LBFS) accidents 37 The influence of top-down processing: an example 40 The constructivist approach: perception for recognition 41 Evidence for the constructivist approach: masking and re-entrant processing 43 The Gibsonian view of perception: perception for action 45 Evidence for the Gibsonian approach 45 The structure of the visual system 46 The dorsal and ventral streams 46 The interaction of the dorsal and ventral streams: perception for recognition and action 48 2.3 Auditory perception 50 Auditory localisation 51 Auditory attention 55 Interactions and real-world examples 55 Top-down influences on auditory perception 56 2.4 Haptic perception 58 More than five senses? 58 Proprioception, kinesthesis and haptic information 60 Using illusions to explore haptic information 62 Applications of haptic information to driving 66 2.5 Conclusion 67 Summary 68 Further reading 69 3. ATTENTION 70 Elizabeth Styles 3.1 What is attention? 71 3.2 What is attention for? 72 3.3 Where is the limit? The search for the bottleneck 74 3.4 The problem of breakthrough 75 3.5 Subliminal priming effects 76 3.6 Object selection, inhibition and negative priming 77 3.7 Directing the spotlight of visual attention 78 3.8 Cross-modal cueing of attention 80 3.9 Visual search 82 3.10 Evidence for and against FIT 83 3.11 The importance of task differences 85 3.12 Attention, working memory and distraction 86 3.13 Attention and cognitive control 87 3.14 Combining tasks 90 3.15 Practice, automaticity and skill 92 Summary 96 Further reading 97 Contents vii 4. DISORDERS OF PERCEPTION AND ATTENTION 98 Tom Manly and Hayley Ness 4.1 Introduction 99 4.2 Synaesthesia 100 The nature of synaesthesia 102 Incidence and familiarity 103 Experimental investigations of synaesthesia 104 Brain-imaging studies of synaesthesia 105 Mechanisms underlying synaesthesia 107 Synaesthesia – advantage or disadvantage? 108 Conclusions 108 4.3 Blindsight 109 Blindsight – a sceptical perspective 110 The sensation of blindsight 112 The implications of blindsight: one visual system or two? 112 4.4 Unilateral spatial neglect 113 A disorder of attention? 114 Do we all show neglect? 117 Rehabilitation for unilateral spatial neglect 117 Explaining unilateral spatial neglect 118 4.5 Visual agnosia 119 Apperceptive and associative agnosia 119 Form and integrative agnosia 120 Living with visual agnosia 120 Perception and action 123 Comparing form and integrative agnosia 124 Recognising living and non-living objects 124 4.6 Disorders of face processing 126 Living with prosopagnosia 126 What kind of damage causes acquired prosopagnosia? 127 Prosopagnosia – a face-specific disorder? 129 Covert recognition in prosopagnosia 131 Can prosopagnosia occur without brain damage? 132 Types of impairment in developmental and congenital prosopagnosia 133 Summary 134 Further reading 135 5 SHORT-TERM MEMORY 136 David Groome 5.1 Multistore models of memory 137 The dual-store theory of memory 137 Clinical evidence for the STM/LTM distinction 138 The recency effect 139 5.2 Measuring STM performance 140 The duration of STM storage 140 STM capacity 141 viii Contents 5.3 The working memory model 142 Working memory 142 5.4 The phonological loop 143 Evidence for the phonological loop 143 The word-length effect 144 Sub-components of the phonological loop 144 Non-speech sounds 145 The phonological loop and language acquisition 146 5.5 The visuo-spatial sketchpad 146 Measuring the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad 146 Evidence for the visuo-spatial sketchpad 147 Sub-components of the visuo-spatial sketchpad 148 5.6 The central executive 149 Investigating the central executive 149 Impairment of central executive function 149 5.7 Working memory theory today 150 The episodic buffer 150 Unitary theories of memory 151 Controlled attention theory 151 Individual differences in WM 151 Neuro-imaging studies and WM 153 Summary 154 Further reading 155 6. LONG-TERM MEMORY 156 David Groome 6.1 The nature and function of memory 157 Memory and its importance in everyday life 157 Encoding, storage and retrieval of memory 157 6.2 The first memory experiments 158 Ebbinghaus and the forgetting curve 158 Interference and decay 159 6.3 Meaning, knowledge and schemas 160 Bartlett’s story recall experiments and the schema theory 160 The effect of meaning and knowledge on memory 162 Schemas and scripts 164 Schemas and distortion 164 Meaning and mnemonics 165 6.4 Input processing and encoding 166 Levels of processing theory 166 Orienting tasks 166 Levels theory revised 168 Elaborative and maintenance rehearsal 169 Elaborative encoding and organisation 169 6.5 Retrieval and retrieval cues 170 Recall and recognition 170 Generate and recognise theory 171 Cue-dependent forgetting and the encoding specificity principle 171 Contents ix Transfer-appropriate processing 173 Context-dependent memory 174 State-dependent and mood-dependent memory 176 6.6 Memory systems 177 Episodic and semantic memory 177 Familiarity and recollection 179 The R & K (‘remember and know’) procedure 181 Implicit and explicit memory 181 Implicit memory in everyday life 183 Processes underlying different memory systems 185 6.7 Retrieval practice and retrieval inhibition 185 Retrieval practice and the testing effect 185 Decay with disuse 186 Retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) 187 RIF in real-life settings 188 Retrieval inhibition, disuse and psychiatric disorders 189 Directed forgetting 190 Reconsolidation 191 6.8 Memory in everyday life 192 Ecological validity 192 Autobiographical memory 193 Flashbulb memories 196 Eyewitness testimony 197 The cognitive interview 200 Summary 202 Further reading 203 7. DISORDERS OF MEMORY 204 David Groome 7.1 Amnesia and its causes 205 The effects of amnesia 205 Causes of amnesia 205 Amnesia as an impairment of long-term memory 208 7.2 Anterograde and retrograde amnesia 210 Distinguishing anterograde from retrograde amnesia 210 Testing anterograde and retrograde amnesia 211 Anterograde and retrograde impairment in organic amnesia 212 Focal retrograde and focal anterograde amnesia 213 Explaining the temporal gradient in retrograde amnesia 215 Brain lesions associated with anterograde and retrograde amnesia 215 7.3 Intact and impaired memory systems 218 Motor skills 219 Implicit memory 220 Familiarity and context recollection 221 Episodic and semantic memory 223 Explaining preserved memory function in amnesia 225