AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF YOUTH GAMBLING AND PROBLEM GAMBLING & RELATED LITERATURE IN SUBSTANCE ABUSE, RISK-TAKING & YOUTH DEVELOPMENT Jamie Wiebe, Ph.D Harold Wynne, Ph.D Randy Stinchfield, Ph.D Joël Tremblay, Ph.D Canadian Consortium for Gambling Research OCTOBER 2004 An Annotated Bibliography of Youth Gambling and Problem Gambling & Related Literature in Substance Abuse, Risk-Taking & Youth Development October, 2004 Prepared by: Jamie Wiebe, Ph.D. Harold Wynne, Ph.D. Randy Stinchfield, Ph.D. Joel Tremblay, Ph.D. 0 Youth Gambling & Other Risk-Taking Table of Contents 1.0 Background.............................................................................................................................2 1.1 Project Objectives.................................................................................................................3 2.0 Methodology............................................................................................................................4 2.1 Sources, Publication Dates, and Types of Documents Searched..........................................4 2.2 Keywords Searched..............................................................................................................5 3.0 Searching the Bibliography....................................................................................................6 3.1 Overview...............................................................................................................................6 3.2 Meaning of Secondary Content Areas..................................................................................6 3.3 Searching for Problem Gambling Articles............................................................................6 3.4 Searching for Substance Use and Abuse Articles.................................................................7 3.5 Searching for Risk Taking Articles.......................................................................................8 3.6 Searching for Youth Development Articles..........................................................................8 4.0 Problem Gambling..................................................................................................................9 4.1 Conceptualization.................................................................................................................9 4.2 Correlates............................................................................................................................23 4.3 Measurement.......................................................................................................................67 4.4 Treatment............................................................................................................................81 4.5 Prevention...........................................................................................................................90 5.0 Substance Use and Abuse...................................................................................................102 5.1 Conceptualization.............................................................................................................102 5.2 Correlates..........................................................................................................................116 5.3 Measurement.....................................................................................................................175 6.0 Risk-Taking.........................................................................................................................197 6.1 Conceptualization.............................................................................................................197 6.2 Correlates..........................................................................................................................201 6.3 Measurement.....................................................................................................................216 7.0 General Youth Development..............................................................................................223 1 Youth Gambling & Other Risk-Taking 1.0 Background Currently, there is a pressing need for a psychometrically sound survey instrument for assessing gambling behaviour and identifying problem gambling in the adolescent population. Research examining the prevalence of problem gambling in the general population shows higher problem gambling rates among youth than adults. While there is general consensus in the literature that it is common for youth to gamble and develop associated problems, there is less agreement regarding the validity of higher problem gambling rates observed among youth (e.g. Ladouceur, 2001; Ladouceur et al., 2000; Stinchfield, 2000). In the extensive National Research Council (1999) study of pathological gambling in the United States, the study committee noted the problem of accurately assessing the extent of adolescent problem gambling: The committee estimates that, in a given year, as many as 1.1 million adolescents [in the United States] between the ages of 12 and 18 are pathological gamblers. However, the committee recognizes that adolescent measures of pathological gambling are not always comparable to adult measures, and that different thresholds for adolescent gambling problems may exist. Given various ways in which pathological gambling has been operationalized in prevalence studies among adolescents, this estimate should be viewed with caution. (p.3) In the July 17, 2002 issue of The WAGER, the editors comment on Jacobs’ (2000) meta-analysis of 20 studies of adolescent gambling from 1984 to 1999 and conclude that it is unclear whether the United States is still experiencing an upward swing or whether the prevalence of gambling problems among youth has peaked. Furthermore, they state: Given the preponderance of evidence, perhaps the most careful opinion on this matter was offered by the National Research Council when they concluded that variation in methods, instrumentation, and conceptualization might influence findings, and therefore it is not yet possible to draw confident conclusions about the rate of gambling disorders among youth (p.2). The findings of the National Research Council, supported by this recent analysis by The WAGER editors, suggests that there is a need for “conceptualization” of the adolescent problem gambling construct and for “methods and instrumentation” that will render more valid and reliable estimates of prevalence. As further support for this position, in her assessment of the validity and reliability of the SOGS-RA for measuring problem gambling in a survey of 13,549 students in Atlantic Canada, Poulin (2002) concluded that: Regarding criterion validity, there is an urgent need to perform the types of enquiry that will allow clarification about how adolescent problem gambling is conceptualized, by adults versus adolescents, by males versus females, and from a clinical versus a public or population health perspective (p.91). Notwithstanding that a rich repository of adolescent gambling research has been generated over the past decade, these considered conclusions point to a critical need that continues to exist to develop a more valid and reliable instrument to measure the construct of adolescent problem gambling. 2 Youth Gambling & Other Risk-Taking 1.1 Project Objectives The purpose of this research project is: to reconceptualize the adolescent problem gambling construct; to operationally define gambling and problem gambling in the adolescent population; and to develop and evaluate a measure that will identify adolescent problem gamblers in the general population. This research project will be undertaken in two phases. Phase I includes reconceptualizing the construct, positing an operational definition, and developing an initial instrument. Phase 2 involves testing the new instrument to determine its reliability and validity in assessing gambling and identifying problem gambling among youth. The Phase I reconceptualization of the adolescent problem gambling construct--positing an operational definition and developing a corresponding draft instrument--is the most crucial phase of the project. While there has been an increasing amount of research activity in the area of adolescent problem gambling, and notwithstanding that more is being learned as research progresses, this field is very much in its infancy. Moreover, it is critical that research from other fields (e.g., public health, sociology, criminology, education) into adolescent risk-taking behaviour be considered as the conceptual framework is being developed. The reconceptualization will be directed from two main initiatives: (1) an extensive review of the literature related to problem gambling, substance use, other risk-taking and adolescent development, and (2) an expert panel of renowned gambling researchers, who will be asked to share seminal literature, theories, present conceptualizations of the construct, and other related insights into adolescent behaviour so that a context for this nominal adolescent disorder might be discerned. The researchers will also be asked to: comment on the conceptual framework that is developed; nominate domains, variables, indicators and/or items for inclusion in the instrument(s); and comment on the draft instrument and results from pilot testing. This report presents a comprehensive list of abstracts that will be consulted as part of the reconceptualization process. 3 2.0 Methodology 2.1 Sources, Publication Dates, and Types of Documents Searched References in the bibliography were obtained from two waves of literature searches: one conducted from September to December 2003, the other conducted from December 2003 to January 2004. Both searches were confined to electronic sources that included library catalogues, bibliographic databases, and specialized web site collections (see Table 1). Reference lists of selected articles were also searched in some cases. Types of documents searched include journal articles, book chapters, policy papers, conference papers, and other reports. With few exceptions, searches were limited to articles published between 1990 and 2004. Some unpublished articles and articles in press were also included. Table 1. Library catalogues, databases, and specialized web site collections used in searches. Library Catalogues Databases Web Site Collections Library of Congress ASSIA McGill University Youth Gambling site University of Alberta ERIC Project CORK University of Toronto Ingenta LOCATORplus NLM Gateway PsycINFO PubMed / Medline Science Direct Social Science Abstracts Social Sciences Citations Index Social Work Abstracts Sociological Abstracts Web of Knowledge 4 2.2 Keywords Searched The following list contains the keywords used in both the first and second wave of literature searches.1 Note that because the search strategy varied somewhat between the two waves, some keywords used for assessing the same term may seem redundant (e.g., gam* and gambling). Keywords were searched in abstracts, keywords, descriptors and/or titles of the databases searched. Addiction Risk-Taking Addiction Problem behaviors Dependency Risk behaviour Risk-taking Behaviour Risky behaviour Behaviour Sensation seeking Conceptualization Substance Concept Alcohol Framework Cigarettes Model Drugs Models Smoking Theories Substance Theory Substance abuse Substance misuse Correlates Substance use Consequences Correlates Youth Determinants Adolesc* Protective factors Adolescent Risk factors Child Sex Child* Children Development Juven* Cognitive Student* Socialization Teen Stages Teen* Teenager Gambling You* Gam* Young adults Gambl* Youth Gambling Measurement Index Instrument Instrument development [Name of specific instrument] Reliability Scale Screening tools Validity 1 Specific authors were also searched in some cases. 5 3.0 Searching the Bibliography 3.1 Overview The structure of the bibliography resembles a matrix of sorts: Each of the primary content areas (i.e., Problem Gambling, Substance Use and Abuse, Risk-Taking) is further subdivided into the secondary content areas of conceptualization, correlates, and measurement. The two exceptions are the primary content areas of Adolescent Development and Problem Gambling: The former is not subdivided into any secondary content areas at all, whereas the latter, in addition to being subdivided into the secondary content areas of conceptualization, correlates, and measurement, is subdivided into the secondary content areas of prevention and treatment. Moreover, as discussed below, some of the Problem Gambling secondary content areas are further subdivided into a variety of content keywords. 3.2 Meaning of Secondary Content Areas The secondary content term CONCEPTUALIZATION refers to classifications, definitions, models, and theories of the primary content area in question. Note that because of the paucity of conceptual papers written about youth, particularly in the area of problem gambling, many conceptualization articles are based on adults. CORRELATES refers not only to correlates of the primary content area, but also to its predictors, motivators, consequences, and other descriptive characteristics. MEASUREMENT refers to the use of particular instruments, comparison between instruments, and general measurement issues and problems. For Problem Gambling, PREVENTION refers to education programs (e.g., school curriculum, media campaigns, etc.), legislation, and/or policies (e.g., age restrictions, etc.); TREATMENT refers to descriptive articles, evaluation studies, and other articles pertaining to the treatment of problem gambling. 3.3 Searching for Problem Gambling Articles Searching for Problem Gambling articles can either be done at the secondary content level (e.g., CONCEPTUALIZATION) or, for the secondary content levels of CONCEPTUALIZATION, CORRELATES, and MEASUREMENT, at the keyword content level within the secondary content levels (e.g., addiction, cognition, etc). As is the case with standard hyperlink searching, any terms that are underlined may be searched. CONCEPTUALIZATION - Problem gambling as a biological, physiological, and/or neurobiological disorder - Problem gambling as a disorder of: - addiction - cognition (e.g., biases) - compulsion and/or OCD spectrum - impulse control - psychopathy - risk taking - self-regulation/self-control - sensation-seeking - Problem gambling as a multi-determined, heterogeneous disorder - Problem gambling as part of a problem behavior syndrome - Problem gambling from a public health perspective - Reviews and overviews 6 Youth Gambling & Other Risk-Taking CORRELATES - Behavioral (e.g., substance use, delinquency, suicide attempts/ideation, gambling preference/frequency/age of onset, prior video gaming, community involvement, quit/treatment attempts, etc.) - Biological/Physiological (e.g., family history/genetics, neurobiological/anatomical, etc.) - Cognitive (e.g., biases, knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, values, etc.) - Demographic (e.g., age, grade level, sex, race, SES, place of residence, living arrangement, etc.) - Emotional (e.g., mood, anxiety, distress, guilt, excitement, fun) - Financial (e.g., gain, loss) - Individual difference and other personality variables (e.g., impulsivity, risk-taking, sensation-seeking, compulsiveness, religiosity, coping style, self-esteem, intelligence, locus of control, hyperactivity, etc.) - Physical (e.g., health) - Situational (e.g., time of day/year, stressors, gambling location, available leisure time) - Social/Interpersonal (e.g., family/peer influences, parental supervision, socialization, perceived social norms, relationships, etc.) - Structural (e.g., accessibility, media influence) - Vocational (e.g., school performance, etc.) - Reviews and Overviews MEASUREMENT - ASI (Addiction Severity Index) - DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Version Four) - DSM-IV-J (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Version Four, Juvenile Criteria) - DSM-IV-MR-J (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Version Four, Multiple Response- Juvenile) - GA (Gamblers Anonymous) 20 Questions - MAGS (Massachusetts Gambling Screen) - Measurement comparison - Measurement issues - Other measures - SOGS (South Oaks Gambling Screen) - SOGS- RA (South Oaks Gambling Screen Revised for Adolescents) - Reviews and overviews TREATMENT PREVENTION 3.4 Searching for Substance Use and Abuse Articles Searching for Substance Use and Abuse articles can only be done at the secondary content level. CONCEPTUALIZATION CORRELATES MEASUREMENT 7 Youth Gambling & Other Risk-Taking 3.5 Searching for Risk Taking Articles Searching for Risk Taking articles can only be done at the secondary content level. CONCEPTUALIZATION CORRELATES MEASUREMENT 3.6 Searching for Youth Development Articles Searching for Youth Development articles can only be done at the primary content level. Youth Development 8