GEORGIA Adopt-A-Stream Department of Natural Resources Environmental Protection Division Amphibian Monitoring The publication of this document was supported by the Georgia Environmental Protection Division and was financed in part through a grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under the provisions of section 319(h) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended. 4/20/08 Acknowledgements This manual draws on the experience of many wonderful citizen monitoring, stewardship and education programs. Georgia Adopt-A-Stream gratefully acknowledges the following organizations for their advice and use of their materials. Special Contributions Georgia Department of Natural Resources: Environmental Protection Division and Wildlife Resources Division and Joseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center. Writers/Editors Beth Ball Lucrecia Vizcaino Tara K. Muenz and Lora L. Smith, Jones Ecological Research Center Georgia Adopt-A-Stream 4220 International Parkway, Suite 101 Atlanta, Georgia 30354 (404) 675-6240 www.georgiaadoptastream.org 2 Introduction What is an Amphibian? There are three main groups of amphibians: • Anura (frogs and toads) • Caudata (salamanders and newts) • Gymnophiona (caecilians) The word Amphibian means double life. Many species have two phases during their life cycle. As larvae, they spend life in an aquatic environment and as adults they spend life in a terrestrial environment. Amphibians are vertebrates, animals that have a spine. They are ectothermic, meaning that they cannot generate their own body heat. They regulate their body temperature by moving into areas that provide the right temperature for their survival. Amphibians do not have scales or any other means to protect themselves from drying out and tend to require a moist habitat. Most species require a water source for survival, and several require water for reproduction. Biology and Ecology of Amphibians Life Cycle Many amphibians exhibit multi-phasic life cycles with metamorphosis separating the larval, juvenile, and adult stages. Some species do not have a free-living larval stage, essentially completing metamorphosis within the egg. Other species, such as the sirens, have abandoned metamorphosis altogether and retain larval morphology, remaining in an entirely aquatic habitat throughout their lives. During metamorphosis, larvae slowly change from fishlike, completely aquatic animals, to animals better suited for life on land. Gills give way to lungs, and in the case of anurans, tails give way to limbs. The length of time required for metamorphosis varies among different species. Little is known about the longevity of most amphibians in the wild, but studies of captive animals show that some can be extremely long-lived. Some captive 3 salamanders have survived for 20 to 25 years, and a few have lived for more than 50 years. Captive frogs have shorter life spans, typically living for 1 to 10 years. Some toads have survived in captivity for more than 30 years. Range and Habitat Scientists have recognized more than 6,000 species of amphibians. Anurans are the most abundant of all, with over 5,000 species. Frogs are the most widespread of all amphibians, inhabiting every continent except Antarctica. Salamanders are found throughout the northern hemisphere and parts of South America. Caecilians are the rarest group of amphibians and are limited to the tropical regions of Southeast Asia, Africa, the Seychelles islands, and South America. Although most species require freshwater habitats such as ponds, swamps, streams, or other wet environments for breeding, amphibians are capable of living in a variety of habitats including grasslands, rain forests, conifer forests, alpine areas, and even deserts. Remarkably, many amphibians are adept at finding moisture in seemingly dry environments. Physical Characteristics Amphibians range in size from the giant salamanders of Japan and China, which can exceed 1.5 m (5 ft) in length, to the tiny gold frog, that only reaches 1 cm (about 0.4 in). Most salamanders are between 5 and 20 cm (2 and 8 in) long, and most frogs measure between 2 and 8 cm (0.8 and 3 in). Caecilians are more variable in size. Most species are between 10 and 50 cm (4 and 20 in), but some grow as long as 1 m (3 ft). Amphibian larvae are typically aquatic and have many features in common with fish. Frog larvae, commonly referred to as tadpoles, live exclusively in water and have internal gills that enable them to obtain oxygen from water. Salamander larva typically have external gills. Adult amphibians typically have limbs that enable them to move about on land as well as in the water. Anurans are equipped with hind limbs that are long, strong, and have elongated ankles that enable jumping. Hind toes are webbed to aid in swimming, although webbing varies among species (i.e. tree frogs have less webbing than bullfrogs). Most salamanders have four short legs and a long tail, which they use for balance while walking on land and to propel them through the water when swimming. Caecilians have no limbs at all. They burrow in the soil by using their strong skulls as battering rams and swim by moving their muscular bodies back and forth like eels. 4 Internal Anatomy and Skin Amphibian internal anatomy is similar to that of other vertebrates. Adult amphibians typically have lungs for breathing oxygen, but some water-dwelling species have both lungs and gills, and others obtain all the oxygen they need to survive through their permeable skin. Amphibians are ectotherms (“cold blooded” is a more commonly used term for ectotherms, though the animal does not actually have a cold body temperature). This means that they are not able to generate their own body heat. Instead, their body temperature is regulated by their surroundings. Behaviors to regulate body temperature include basking in the sun, being active at night, or even a reduction in activity altogether. Hairless and scale-less, amphibian skin provides protective coloring, a way to absorb water and oxygen from their environment, and a defense against arid conditions and hungry predators. Some amphibians are brilliantly hued, while others display coloring that blends with their habitat. Amphibians owe their diverse coloration to both pigment granules in the upper layer of skin and specialized pigment-containing cells called chromatophores in the skin’s lower layer. Many amphibians change their skin color by concentrating or dispersing the various pigments in the chromatophores. This behavior has two purposes. It helps them to adjust their body temperature because light colors reflect heat more than dark colors and it also acts as a camouflage mechanism, helping them to escape predation. Amphibians use their permeable skin to obtain both oxygen and water from their environment. Thus, their skin must stay moist in order for oxygen to dissolve in an aqueous film on the skin and pass to the blood. Their skin also contains numerous glands that produce secretions that prevent them from drying out and/or are toxic or unpalatable to predators. In the water, these protective secretions help amphibians retain a healthy balance of salt and water within their internal tissues. Vocalizations Amphibians lack external ears but have well-developed internal ears. Male frogs produce a wide variety of vocalizations, which they use in mating and territorial interactions. Each frog species has a unique vocalization, which makes it easy to recognize. Because each frog species has a unique call, vocalizations can be a reliable method of identification. Neither salamanders nor caecilians have a true voice box, but when threatened, some salamanders can produce yelps or barking sounds. 5 Behavior Much of an amphibian’s life is dictated by the necessity of keeping its skin moist and regulating body temperature. Amphibians will bask in the sun in order to raise their body temperature or hide in small crevices in order to keep their body temperature from dropping too low. In hot climates, many adult amphibians are nocturnal (active at night rather than in the day) to avoid excessive heat and guard against water loss. In cold climates, amphibians become torpid, or inactive, when temperatures drop. Most amphibians are carnivorous, feeding on a variety of insects, spiders, crustaceans, worms, small reptiles, and sometimes, smaller amphibians. With their soft skin and lack of claws, amphibians are particularly vulnerable to predators, which include a host of small mammals, birds, lizards, snakes, turtles, and even larger amphibians. When facing a predator, amphibians have several ways to defend themselves: • cryptic (camouflage) or warning coloration • unpalatable or poisonous toxins in their skin • make use of their impressive tails in defense (Salamanders) • puff up their bodies so that they appear much larger than their real size (Anurans) Reproduction Amphibians have a variety of reproductive behaviors. Most salamanders reproduce by internal fertilization. Male salamanders often emit odors to attract a female’s attention. If a female looks their way, these males may display bright colors and complex postures. Anurans reproduce by external fertilization. Frogs gather in huge numbers— sometimes thousands of individuals—when conditions are right for breeding. Male frogs rely on their calls, croaks, clicks, whistles, or trills, to attract females and keep other males away. Amphibian eggs are not protected by a waterproof shell like those of birds or reptiles; instead each egg is surrounded by a clear, protective, jellylike substance called a capsule. The eggs need to be laid in water or in a damp place to prevent the developing embryo from drying out. Many amphibians lay their eggs directly in water, but some frogs and salamanders, and nearly all caecilians, lay their eggs on land in moist places such as leaf litter, burrows or cracks in the ground, and beneath logs or rocks. Most amphibians that lay their eggs in water leave them unattended, but in species that deposit their eggs on land, a parent commonly guards the eggs to prevent predation. About 20% of amphibian species show some form of parental care. 6 Risks to Amphibians Amphibians have survived more than 300 million years through numerous and drastic environmental changes that led to the demise of dinosaurs and many other species. Yet scientists are alarmed by the recent rapid decline of amphibians in many parts of the world. These declines are evident in places as widely separated as North America, South America, and Australia, and have prompted international concern. Declines in amphibian populations may be due in part to natural fluctuations, but more likely suggest that humans are impacting the environment at a greater rate than amphibian species can sustain. Their complex life cycle and permeable skin make amphibians particularly sensitive to environmental disturbances such as drought and pollutants. This sensitivity makes them excellent biological indicators, organisms whose well- being provides clues to the health of an ecosystem. Mysteriously, many amphibian populations are dwindling or even disappearing in areas where the habitat is protected. In Australia, two species of gastric (mouth) brooding frogs have not been detected since the early 1980s, yet their habitat remains relatively pristine. The golden toad of Costa Rica has not been seen since 1989, even though its high-elevation rain forest habitat has been protected as a national reserve since the 1970s. Similarly, the red-legged frog has vanished from large areas of the North American Pacific Coast, where it was once abundant. Another disturbing development is that large numbers of amphibians, especially frogs, are being found with misshapen, extra, or missing limbs. No single factor has been identified as the cause of these disturbing trends. Instead, a variety of factors may be responsible. These may include disease from viral, bacterial, or fungal pathogens; global warming; or increased levels of the ultraviolet-B component of sunlight hitting the Earth as a result of depletion of the protective ozone layer. Ultraviolet-B light is particularly suspect in the decline of amphibian species that lay their eggs in shallow water, because such eggs are exposed to sunlight for long periods. At a more local level, chemical pollutants, such as acid rain, pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers, may be harming amphibians. In some regions, the introduction of nonnative competitors and predators has contributed to amphibian population declines. It is likely that an interaction of some or all of these factors may be exacerbating conditions for amphibians. 7 Species richness in the Southeast The continental United States is home to at least 260 amphibian species: 90 frog and toad species, and 170 species of salamanders. The Southeastern US is unique in that it harbors many amphibians, with over 144 species living in a variety of freshwater habitats. Georgia in particular has 32 species of frogs and toads in five families. They range in size from the Little Grass Frog at 11 mm (0.44 in) long, to the large Bullfrog that reaches a record length of 203 mm (8 in). There are 55 salamander species identified in the state, with new species still being identified. Monitoring activities In Georgia, volunteer amphibian monitoring activities are in their infancy. Without an established protocol for monitoring amphibians, Georgia volunteer monitors rely on vocalizations to assess the presence of tree frogs and photo-documentation to assess the presence of salamanders. Georgia Adopt-A-Stream amphibian monitoring is a pilot program that hopes to engage volunteers in the process of learning about amphibian populations. The Georgia Herp Atlas is a monitoring program that has relied heavily on volunteer assistance. Because of the scarcity of professional herpetologists in Georgia, amateurs are an indispensable resource to more efficiently survey amphibian populations in the infrequently visited parts of the state. Participants are simply asked to photograph ‘herps’ (amphibians or reptiles) as they encounter them, either through active searches or opportunistically, and document location, date, and observer's name on provided field cards. Because of the photo-documentation requirement, participants need not know what species they observed. This program is coordinated through the Georgia Department of Natural Resources Wildlife Resources Division’s Non Game-Endangered Wildlife Program. There are two national frog and toad monitoring programs, the North American Amphibian Monitoring Program (NAAMP), coordinated by USGS and Frogwatch USA, coordinated by the National Wildlife Federation. Both programs involve volunteers in the identification of frogs and toads by their calls and vocalizations. NAAMP requires that states appoint a statewide leader to coordinate the program. Any volunteer who expresses an interest can contact Frogwatch USA to find out how to participate. You can now learn the sounds frogs and toads in Georgia make with the new "Calls of the Wild - Vocalizations of Georgia’s Frogs" Compact Disk produced by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Wildlife Resources Division (DNR/WRD). This CD presents the unique calls of all 31 species. Informative narration is provided for each of the individual species recordings, and a 16-page booklet loaded with information 8 including natural history, range maps, and physical characteristics for each species accompanies the CD. To order your copy of "Calls of the Wild", contact GA DNR/WRD, Nongame Wildlife & Natural Heritage Section, 116 Rum Creek Drive, Forsyth, GA 31029, ATTN: Georgia's "Calls of the Wild" CD, or for more information call 478-994- 1438. Prices are as follows: $15.36 (includes GA sales tax and shipping charges) for GA residents or $14.45 (includes shipping charges) for non-GA residents. Prices current as of June 2007. Conservation activities Amphibian monitoring is just one tool that can be used as an indicator of water quality. In addition to this, there are a variety of other activities that Georgia Adopt-A-Stream provides volunteers with, free of charge. Different levels of involvement offer different levels of activity. At the most basic level, volunteers register with Georgia Adopt-A- Stream, conduct a watershed assessment and perform visual surveys of their adopted stream. The Getting to Know Your Watershed manual focuses on map assessments and a watershed survey as evaluation tools. The Visual Stream Monitoring manual introduces a diversity of low-cost, hands-on methods for analyzing the physical health of your adopted stream. Optional participation includes biological and/or chemical monitoring, and/or a habitat enhancement project. These activities also have various levels of commitment. • Watershed Assessment Once a year • Visual Monitoring 4 times a year (quarterly) • Biological Monitoring 4 times a year (quarterly) • Physical/Chemical Monitoring 12 times a year (monthly) • Habitat Enhancement One time project Biological and chemical monitoring requires training. Training workshops are available at various locations around the state. Training includes an overview of the program, monitoring techniques and quality assurance tests. Please visit www.georgiaadoptastream.org for a calendar of training classes, to locate your local Adopt-A-Stream coordinator, and to sign up for the Adopt-A-Stream newsletter. These activities help protect water quality and streams because: • Regular monitoring provides specific information about the health of your local stream. • Both long-term trends and immediate changes in water quality can be documented. 9 • Biological monitoring will detect changes in water quality and habitat, and provides an indication of overall stream health. • Chemical monitoring provides specific information about water quality parameters that are important to aquatic life -- such as dissolved oxygen and pH. • Habitat enhancement projects improve streambanks and/or the streambed. These projects may stop a streambank from eroding and decrease the amount of sediment entering a stream or improve an in-stream habitat for fish to feed, hide, and lay eggs. Stream dwelling salamanders can also serve as important ecological indicators of habitat quality. In small headwater streams where salamanders replace fish as the top vertebrate predators, they serve as another potential tool to assess stream health. In fact, several state monitoring programs have determined that fish indicators are ineffective in headwater streams, where flow is too low to sustain healthy populations. In these areas of low flow, salamanders may provide valuable information. However, more research is needed to create an index of biotic integrity that will help determine whether stream salamanders are effective indicators of ecological conditions across biogeographic regions and gradients of human disturbance. Web links • http://allaboutfrogs.org/froglnd.shtml • http://cgee.hamline.edu/frogs/science/frogfact.html • http://museum.nhm.uga.edu/gawildlife/amphibians/amphibians.html • http://www.amonline.net.au/herpetology/index.htm • http://herpcenter.ipfw.edu • http://www.uga.edu/srelherp/index.htm • http://www.parcplace.org/ More links can be found at http://www.georgiaadoptastream.org/resourcelinks.html Published documents Abundance and Distribution of a Stream Plethondontid Salamander Assemblage in 14 Ecologically Dissimilar Watersheds in the Pennsylvania Central Appalachians. Gian L. Rocco and Robert P. Brooks, December 2000 Land Manager’s Guide to the Amphibians and Reptiles of the South. Lawrence Wilson, 1995 Leaf litterbags: Factors affecting capture of stream-dwelling salamanders. Jayme L. Waldron, C. Kenneth Dodd Jr., Jeffrey D. Corser, 2003 Measuring and monitoring biological diversity: Standard methods for amphibians. W.R. Heyer, A. Donnelly, R.W. McDiarmid, L.C. Hayek, and M.S. Foster (ed.) Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. 10