AMERICAN COUNTERCULTURES An Encyclopedia of Nonconformists, Alternative Lifestyles, and Radical Ideas in U.S. History Edited by Gina Misiroglu SHARPE REFERENCE Sharpe Reference is an imprint of M.E. Sharpe, Inc. M.E. Sharpe, Inc. 80 Business Park Drive Armonk, NY 10504 © 2013 by M.E. Sharpe, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright holders. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data American countercultures: an encyclopedia of nonconformists, alternative lifestyles, and radical ideas in U.S. history/Gina Misiroglu, editor. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7656-8060-0 (hardcover: alk. paper) 1. Counterculture—United States—History. 2. United States—Social life and customs. 3. Popular culture—United States—History. I. Misiroglu, Gina Renie. HM647.A44 2009 306'.1—dc22 2008026227 Cover images (clockwise, starting in upper left corner) provided by the following: Bob Gomel/Stringer/ Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images; Silver Screen Collection/Hulton Archive/Getty Images; John Olson/ Stringer/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images; Library of Congress; Stringer/Getty Images; Library of Congress. Printed and bound in the United States of America The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z 39.48.1984. (c) 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Publisher: Myron E. Sharpe Vice President and Director of New Product Development: Donna Sanzone Vice President and Production Director: Carmen Chetti Executive Editor and Manager of Reference: Todd Hallman Executive Development Editor: Jeff Hacker Project Manager: Laura Brengelman Program Coordinator: Cathleen Prisco Text Design: Carmen Chetti and Jesse Sanchez Cover Design: Jesse Sanchez AMERICAN COUNTERCULTURES Table of Contents Introduction: American Countercultures–Nonconformists, Alternative Lifestyles, and Radical Ideas in U.S. History A-Z Entries Abbey, Edward (1927–1989) Abolitionism Abraham Lincoln Brigade Absinthe Abstract Expressionism Acid Rock Advertising African Americans Afrocentrism Alcoholics Anonymous Alcott, Amos Bronson (1799–1888) Algonquin Round Table Ali, Muhammad (1942–) Alice’s Restaurant Alison, Francis (1705–1779) Altamont Free Concert Amana Society American Indian Movement Amish Amphetamines and Speed Freaks Anarchism Anarchist Cookbook, The Anderson, Laurie (1947–) Anderson, Margaret (1886–1973) Andrews, Stephen Pearl (1812–1886) Anti-Freemasonry Anti-Globalization Movement Antinomianism Apocalypse Culture Apple Computer Armory Show Ashcan School Asian Pride Astrology Atheism Aurora Commune Austin, Texas Baby Boomers Backus, Isaac (1724–1806) Baez, Joan (1941–) Baker, Chet (1929–1988) Baker, Josephine (1906–1975) Baldwin, James (1924–1987) Baldwin, Roger (1884–1981) Baraka, Amiri (1934–) Barnes, Djuna (1892–1982) Barnum, P.T. (1810–1891) Beach, Sylvia (1887–1962) Beat Generation Beatles, The Bebop Be-Ins Bellamy, Edward (1850–1898) Ben & Jerry’s Berkeley, California Berkman, Alexander (1870–1936) Berlin Heights Commune Berrigan, Daniel (1921–), and Philip Berrigan (1923–2002) Bethel Commune Bicycles Bierce, Ambrose (1842–1914?) Biker Culture Birth Control Pill Black Arts Movement Black Mountain College Black Muslims Black Panthers Black Power Movement Blavatsky, Helena (1831–1891) Bloggers Blue Man Group Blues Music Body Arts Bohemianism Bookstores, Alternative Boston Marriages Bowery B’hoys and G’hals Bowie, David (1947–) Branch Davidians Brando, Marlon (1924–2004) Brautigan, Richard (1935–1984) Brisbane, Albert (1809–1890) Broadside Brook Farm Brown, H. Rap (1943–) Brown Berets Brownson, Orestes (1803–1876) Bruce, Lenny (1925–1966) Buddhism Bukowski, Charles (1920–1994) Buntline, Ned (ca. 1823–1886) Burning Man Festival Burns, Otway (1775–1850) Burroughs, William S. (1914–1997) Cambridge, Massachusetts Carlin, George (1937–2008) Carmichael, Stokely (1941–1998) Carroll, Jim (1950–2009) Carson, Rachel (1907–1964) Cash, Johnny (1932–2003) Castaneda, Carlos (1925–1998) Catcher in the Rye, The Catholic Worker Movement CBGB Cedar Tavern Chautauqua Movement Chávez, César (1927–1993) Cheech and Chong Chelsea Hotel Cherry Lane Theatre Chicago Seven Chicano Moratorium Chicano Movement Chicano Theater Chick, Jack (1924–) Chomsky, Noam (1928–) Christian Science Circus and Carnival Culture City College of New York City Lights Books Civil Rights Movement Claflin, Tennessee (1846–1923) Clapp, Henry (1814–1875) Clare, Ada (ca. 1836–1874) Cocaine Coffeehouses COINTELPRO Collins, Judy (1939–) Columbia University Come-Outers Comics, Underground Communes Communism Communitarianism Con Artists Conceptual Art Conroy, Jack (1898–1990) Conscientious Objectors, Draft Dodgers, and Deserters Consciousness Raising Conspiracy Theories Cooperatives, Consumer Cooperatives, Producer Coyote, Peter (1941–) Crumb, Robert (1943–) Cults Cummings, E.E. (1894–1962) Cushman, Charlotte (1816–1876) Cyberpunk Daughters of Bilitis Davis, Andrew Jackson (1826–1910) Davis, Angela (1944–) Davis, Miles (1926–1991) Dean, James (1931–1955) Debs, Eugene V. (1855–1926) Deep Ecology Deganawidah (ca. 1500–ca. 1600) Delany, Martin R. (1812–1885) Democratic Party Dial, The Dick, Philip K. (1928–1982) Disco Doonesbury Douglass, Frederick (ca. 1818–1895) Draft, Military Drag Drifters Drug Culture Du Bois, W.E.B. (1868–1963) Dyer, Mary (ca. 1611–1660) Dylan, Bob (1941–) East Village, New York City Eastman, Max (1883–1969), and Crystal Eastman (1881–1928) Easy Rider Eckankar Ecstasy Electrical Bananas Ellison, Harlan (1934–) Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1803–1882) Emo and Hardcore Encounter Groups Environmentalism Ephrata Cloister Erhard Seminars Training (est) Esalen Institute Eugene, Oregon Evergreen Review Existentialism Exorcism Extrasensory Perception and Parapsychology Farm, The Farmers’ Alliance Fashion Father Divine (ca. 1877–1965) Federal Art Project Federal Theatre Project Federal Writers’ Project Feminism, First-Wave Feminism, Second-Wave Feminism, Third-Wave Feminism, Social Justice Ferlinghetti, Lawrence (1919–) Fetish Culture Film, Cult Film, Hollywood Film, Independent Fitzgerald, F. Scott (1896–1940) Fitzgerald, Zelda (1900–1948) Flappers and Flapper Culture Flower Children Folk Music Foster, Charles H. (1838–1888) Fox, Kate (1838–1892), Leah Fox (1814–1890), and Margaret Fox (1833–1893) Freaks, Freak Shows, and Freakatoriums Free Love Free Speech Movement Free Universities Freemasonry Friedan, Betty (1921–2006) Fruitlands Fugs, The Fuller, Margaret (1810–1850) Fuller, R. Buckminster (1895–1983) Fundamentalism, Christian Gangs and Gang Culture Gangsta Rap Gangsters Garrison, William Lloyd (1805–1879) Garvey, Marcus (1887–1940) Gay Liberation Movement Gaye, Marvin (1939–1984) Generation Gap Generation X Generation Y Ghost Dance Ginsberg, Allen (1926–1997) Glam Rock Goldman, Emma (1869–1940) Gonzales, Rodolfo “Corky” (1928–2005) Gonzo Journalism Gorton, Samuel (ca. 1592–1677) Goth Culture Graffiti Graham, Sylvester (1794–1851) Grange, National Grateful Dead Gray Panthers Great Depression Greeley, Horace (1811–1872) Green Party Greening of America, The Greenwich Village, New York City Gregory, Dick (1932–) Groupies Grunge Rock Guerrilla Girls Guerrilla Theater Guthrie, Woody (1912–1967) Hackers Haight-Ashbury, San Francisco Hair Happenings Hare Krishna Harlem Renaissance Harmonialism Harmony Society Harris, Thomas Lake (1823–1906) Hasidim and Hasidism Hatch, Cora Scott (1840–1923) Hawthorne, Nathaniel (1804–1864) Haywood, William “Big Bill” (1869–1928) Health Foods Heaven’s Gate Heavy Metal Hecker, Isaac (1819–1888) Hefner, Hugh (1926–) Hells Angels Hemingway, Ernest (1899–1961) Hendrix, Jimi (1942–1970) Heroin Hester, Carolyn (1937–) Hip-Hop Hippies Hitchhiking Hoffman, Abbie (1936–1989) Holiday, Billie (1915–1959) hooks, bell (1952–) Hopper, Dennis (1936–) Hot-Rodding Houdini, Harry (1874–1926) Hughes, Langston (1902–1967) Hurston, Zora Neale (ca. 1891–1960) Hutchinson, Anne (1591–1643) Huxley, Aldous (1894–1963) Icarians Indie Rock Industrial Workers of the World Ingersoll, Robert (1833–1899) Internet James, C.L.R. (1901–1989) Jazz Jefferson Airplane Jehovah’s Witnesses Jemison, Mary (1743–1833) Jesus People Jews Jews for Jesus John Birch Society John Reed Clubs Joplin, Janis (1943–1970) Kerouac, Jack (1922–1969) Kesey, Ken (1935–2001) King, Martin Luther, Jr. (1929–1968) Kitchen, The Knights of the Golden Circle Ku Klux Klan Kunstler, William (1919–1995) Latino and Latina Culture Le Sueur, Meridel (1900–1996) Leary, Timothy (1920–1996) Lee, Ann (1736–1784) Lennon, John (1940–1980) Lesbian Culture Liberator, The Lippmann, Walter (1889–1974) Living Theatre London, Jack (1876–1916) Los Angeles, California