Alvin Lucier’s Music for Solo Performer: Experimental music beyond sonification VOLKER STRAEBEL* and WILM THOBEN*,y *TechnischeUniversita¨tBerlin,FachgebietAudiokommunikation,Einsteinufer17c,Sekr.E-N8,10578Berlin,Germany yUCLADesignjMediaArts,BroadArtCenter,240CharlesE.YoungDrive,LosAngeles,CA90095,USA E-mails:[email protected];[email protected] AlvinLucier’s MusicforSolo Performer (1965),often People(1964)andthepremiereofCage’sRozartMix referredtoasthe‘brainwavepiece’,hasbecomeakeywork for 88 tape loops were presented. Alvin Lucier, who ofexperimentalmusic.Itssetup,inwhichthebrainwavesofa held a position as choral conductor at Brandeis, had soloperformeraremadetoexcitepercussioninstruments,has invited Cage to do a concert and Cage insisted to giventhework acentral placein thediscourse onartistic have works by Wolff and Lucier performed. Out of sonification.However, only a smallnumber ofthe authors the documented accounts about the concert and its makingreferencetotheworkseemtohavestudiedthescore, preparation (Cage 1965; Lucier 1967b: 40–1, 1972: andevenfewerhavegiventhoughttothescore’simplications 22–3, 2005: 498–506, 2012a: 51–3; Lucier and Simon forperformancepracticeandaestheticreflection.Thispaper paysdetailed attentionto theseyet overlooked aspects, 1980:69–78;Revill1992:210–12),a2001impromptu drawingonaccountsof early performances aswell as the talk by Lucier is the most detailed: authors’participation in a2012performance led bythe I said I didn’t have a piece (laughs). And there was composer.We alsotrace the historyof live-electronic silence on the phone. Then I said, ‘Well, I am working equipmentusedfor MusicforSoloPerformer anddiscuss with a brain-wave amplifier, but it doesn’t work thework’sreception in sonification research. (laughter). I can’t get the amplifier to work.’ And he [John Cage] laughed and said, ‘It doesn’t matter if it 1. INTRODUCTION doesn’t work’y Alvin Lucier’s Music for Solo Performer for enor- Untilthenightbeforetheconcert,Ididn’tknowexactly mously amplified brain waves and percussion (1965) whatthepiecewasgoingtobe.yIsetup16acoustic- is often considered an early example of artistic suspension speakers around the museum, all of them sonification. The image of a performer sitting touching percussion instruments. I sat there without a motionless on stage and ‘playing’ an ensemble of mixer – we didn’t have any mixers then – the brain percussion instruments by means of electrodes waves went through [Edmond] Dewan’s differential attached to his head has become iconic (Figure 1). amplifier,theninto8stereohi-fiamplifiers,oneafterthe other, in a cascade.1 There were 16 percussion instru- However, the direct transmission of EEG data to ments, including a piano, a cardboard box and a metal loudspeakers that excite percussion instruments via trashcontainer(thespeakersweresimplyplacedinside). sympathetic vibration is an illusion, an intended Asthealpha[brainwaves]flowedthroughthespeakers, theatrical effect. Between data detection and sonic theinstrumentswerephysicallyresonated.Cagewasmy result lies a whole chain of decisions, operations and assistant(laughs).Iaskedhimhowlonghethoughtthe technical devices that may constitute thetechniqueof performanceshouldbe;maybe8or10minutes?Hesaid sonification. The decision to deliberately conceal this itoughttobe40minutes!Inthosedays,thatwasareally chain of operations is of no little importance in long timefor a pieceof music. creating of an image of sonification. In this paper, SoIwenttobedthatnight.Ifeltreallybad.Iwasvery we want to discuss both, technique and claim, to nervousandanxious,becauseIthought,‘Idon’thavea analyseMusicforSoloPerformerasalandmarkpiece structure for this.’ I mean, I’m a composer. I should of experimental music as well as an example for the impose some kind of structure, but then I thought, no, discourse in sonification research. 1‘In a cascade’ does not mean that the amplifiers had been con- 2. SOURCES nectedinseries.Thiswouldhavecauseddistortionbecauseofinput levelsthatweretoohighandwouldnothaveallowedtheassistant Music for Solo Performer was premiered on 5 May to distribute the signal to different speakers. As Hauke Harder 1965attheRoseArtMuseumofBrandeisUniversity (2013) pointed out, the signal was most likely routed from one in Waltham, Massachusetts. The performance was amplifier’stapeline-outoutthenextone’sline-in,sothatspeaker preceded by John Cage performing his 000000 (1962); volumecouldbecontrolledwithoutchangingthesignallevelinthe chain.Formixing,Cagewouldhaveneededtochangebothvolume after the intermission Christian Wolff’s For 1, 2,or 3 andbalancecontrols. OrganisedSound19(1):17–29&CambridgeUniversityPress,2014. doi:10.1017/S135577181300037X Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Universitaetsbibliothek, on 26 Oct 2017 at 11:12:49, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135577181300037X 18 Volker StraebelandWilm Thoben Figure 1. Alvin Lucier (soloist, left) and John Cage (assistant,right)preparingaperformanceofLucier’sMusic for Solo Performer at the festival John Cage at Wesleyan, 1988.&SpecialCollections&Archives,WesleyanUniversity, usedbypermission. brainwavesareanaturalphenomenon.Theyshouldjust flowout,andIwilltrustJohnCagetomovethesounds from onespeaker toanother. (Lucier2001: 29). Figure 2. Alvin Lucier, Music for Solo Performer, verbal 2.1. Score score (Lucier 1980). & Wesleyan University Press, used by Gordon Mumma, who, like Alvin Lucier, David permission. TudorandJohnTilbury,servedassoloistinMusicfor Solo Performer in the early years (Mumma 1968: 69; Simmons 1969: 342), remarked in a 1968 essay forJohnTilbury’s1969Londonperformance,see2.2 about the piece how he was surprised that ‘as the below). musical use of elaborate and sophisticated electronic In 1968, Mumma mentioned a ‘score’ (his quota- technology increases, passing works of art on to tion marks) that Lucier recently had prepared, ‘a kit succeeding generations requires reverting to a kind of parts including electrodes, paste, lead-in wires, a ofancientoraltradition’(Mumma1968:69).Indeed, differential amplifier and low-pass filter, and an theverbalscoreofMusicforSoloPerformer(Figure2) instruction manual [that] awaits verification in the was created after the fact, and perhaps not even hands of future solo performers’ (Mumma 1968: 68). long before its first publication (Lucier 1980).2 It seems like this ‘score’ was merely a set of devices In early performances the soloists relied on direct beyond standard sound amplification equipment instructions from the composer and a shared under- but essential for the performance of Music for Solo standing of live electronics performance practice and Performer.3 As with John Cage’s compositions for experimental music aesthetics. In Mumma’s words, prepared piano where the composer held on to they had to ‘[learn] the work directly from the certain sets of preparation objects, at the time of the composer’ (Mumma 1968: 69), and, based on that work’s creation the understanding of what the piece knowledge, had to find their own solutions when essentially constitutes wasn’t yet fully developed. Lucier wasn’t present (for David Tudor’s 1967 per- Lucier would specify exact models and brands of formance at University of California Davis, see equipment(Lucier1967b:40,1972:24,1976:60)until Tudor’s1989interview(TudorandAustin1989),and it became evident that the devices could be replaced byothermodelsorevenothertechnologythatserved the same purpose. 2Thereprint(Lucier2005a)combinesparagraphs3,4,and5ofthe first publication (Lucier 1980) into one. Also, in the score’s first publicationthetitlestillreadsMusicforSoloPerformer(1965),the yearofcreationbeingpartofthetitle.Thisisinaccordancewith 3In1972,Lucierdescribedmoreprecisely:‘Aperformancekitfor other early publications, like the programme leaflet of the 1966 MusicforSoloPerformer1965isavailableonarentalbasisfrom Stockholmperformance(MusicforSoloPerformer,1965(Wiggen the composer. It includes a set of 3 scalp electrodes, 1 tube of 1966: 3)), Lucier’s early writings (Music for Solo Performer 1965 electrodepaste,1 CybersonicsModel301 preamplifierwithextra (Lucier 1967b, 1972); Music for Solo Performer (1965) (Lucier batteriesandoperatinginstructions,12-channeltapeofprocessed 1976)),andGordonMumma’saccounts(MusicforSoloPerformer pre-recorded brain waves and 1 set of performance directions’ 1965(Mumma1968,1975:331)). (Lucier1972:24). Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Universitaetsbibliothek, on 26 Oct 2017 at 11:12:49, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135577181300037X AlvinLucier’s MusicforSoloPerformer 19 After his performance at the Fylkingen-Festival on Onewouldmisssomuchybythepresenceofspecific 21September1966inStockholm,Luciercontributeda instructions. There would be no way to pin down the text about Music for Solo Performer to the following variables. Nor would I want to pin them down. They year’s edition of Fylkingen Bulletin International change themselves as the performance progresses’ (Lucier 1967b). The first part presents basically the (Lucier 2012b: 254). same information given in the published verbal score, but in the latter part, after the general statements 2.2. An early performance about alpha waves in the first paragraph, Lucier Some remarks on John Tilbury’s performance of changes the perspective to thatof a description of the Lucier’sMusicforSoloPerformeratPurcellRoomin performance at the Rose Art Museum of 1965 (and London on 25 February 1969 might shed some light theStockholmperformanceof1966).Heisavoidinga ontherelationbetweenscoreandperformancebefore score’s projective imperative in favor of a report’s the score’s 1980 publication (Lucier 1980) when the observational past tense. composer was not immediately involved. A reviewer Thesecondpartofthetextisentitled‘Remarksand reports that the ‘charming young leather-jacketed suggestionsforfutureperformances’andconsistsofsix pianist [John Tilbury] came on again, but sat in a numbered paragraphs that encourage the performer: chair. Asolicitous nurse paid attention to the rear of (1) to use more than two electrodes to pick up brain his skull to which two wires were attached. These waves and to attempt to create stereo effects between were linked up to the apparatus and consequent hemispheres throbswere amplified atdifferent volumes fornearly (2) to use more speakers of various sizes and to use a fortyminutes.’Thereviewerleftaftertwentyminutes, wider variety of instruments and resonating objects musing that he ‘had been allowed to share in the (‘includingpianos,harps,harpsichords,drums,cymbals, secret musical thoughts of the performer’ (Simmons sheets of glass,metals, waterandsoforth’) 1969: 342). While the duration falls into the aforementioned (3) to use the threshold switch in a more sophisticated timeframe,twoaspectsattractattention:Thenotionof way (‘perhaps with relays which could activate several theatrical performance by having a nurse – probably tape recorders in tandem, radios, machinery, television sets, lights, alarms andsoforth’) recognisablebyheruniform–attachingtheelectrodes atthebackofthehead(nottheforehead),andthefact (4)to operatethe controlswithout anassistant that percussion instruments are not mentioned at all. John Tilbury remembered some forty years after the (5) to invent a ‘more elaborate signal system’ to com- performance the reason for that: municatemoredetailedinstructionstotheassistant–or ‘[on]theotherhand,instructionsmaybedispensedwith I recall that it was impressively theatrical. Akin to a altogether’ surgicaltheatre.Isatcentre-stage,Ithink.Casuallybut notshabbilyattired.Afterafewmomentsamomentof (6)to performanylengthof time4(Lucier1967b:41). drama: a female doctor came on stage, attired appro- MusicforSoloPerformerisLucier’sfirstexperimental priately (professionally) in white. I think she was from music composition, and it comes as no surprise that the Neurology department of a London hospital. She the composer who was used to precisely notating his placed the electrodes on my scalp; I can’t remember exactlyhowshefixedthembutIseemtorecallthatsome works(evenhisActionMusicforPiano(1962)records kind of paste was involved. She probably then exited, the performer’s movements in rather precise graphic butIcan’trecallexactly.IthinkIwasaloneonstagefor notation (Lucier 1967a)) was hesitant to call a verbal around 40 minutes trying to achieve Samadhi (emanci- descriptionofaperformanceascore.Lucier’sattitude pation from thought). Not that far away from playing changed as his artistic work developed during the Feldman, come to think of it. There were percussion 1960s and 1970s, and he later considered verbal instrumentspositionedaroundthePurcellRoom.Imust notation a worthwhile approach to communicate a have had an assistant or partner who dealt with this work’s essence without restricting the performative aspect of the piece. Could have been Gavin Bryars? processtoomuch.Asherecentlyexplainedinrelation There was little or no response from the instruments. to his Vespers (1970): ‘The scorespecifies a tasktobe I feltIhadbeen inadequateto the task.Andyetitwas accomplished,notacomposer’sideaofafixedobject. 40 minutes of real drama. The audience was expectant without knowing what to expect. In fact, nothing happened. I recall a kind of hum (throb?) which was 4Thatthedurationoftheperformancemaybeundeterminedstands generated somewhere, somehow, in the process, but incontrasttotheinformationgivenbeforestatingthatthepremiere the instruments refused to speak. I recall that the lastedaboutfortyminutes.Areviewofa1966Bostonperformance saxophonistLouGare,whowasintheaudience(anda describes the duration as ‘20 minutes plus’(Gelles 1966), while a member of AMM at the time), thought it was most review of a performance by John Tilbury at Purcell Room in London on 25 February 1969 speaks of ‘nearly forty minutes’ compellingandlovedeveryminuteofit.ButIfelt,atthe (Simmons1969:342). time, thatI hadfailed. (Tilbury 2013). Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Universitaetsbibliothek, on 26 Oct 2017 at 11:12:49, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135577181300037X 20 Volker StraebelandWilm Thoben Tilbury can’t remember ‘how [he] got hold of the box and a metal trash can. On Side B Pauline piece, or what it said. y [He] did phone Alvin Oliverosrecordedfourversions,eachwithaseparate [Lucier] on several occasions y for advice and sug- World Music percussion orchestra: Indian; West gestions’(Tilbury2013).Themissinglinkmighthave African;Chinese,JapaneseandKorean;andJavanese’ been Gavin Bryars, who indeed handled the live (Lucier 1982, liner notes). Only the 2009 CD release electronics: (Lucier 2009) reflects, with a length of 3901400, the premiere performance’s duration. I think Alvin [Lucier] gave me the pre-amplifier and In most of the composer-supervised recordings we filtersthatareneededfortheperformanceofMusicfora can detect sound from pre-recorded and accelerated Solo Performer, and Bob Woolford provided all the amplificationandspeakers(theampswerealwaysLux). alpha waves.5 In his description of the premiere per- formance, Lucier states: ‘In addition to the speakers, For the performance John [Tilbury] decided to make it an integrated threshold switch was employed to quitetheatrical.Wecameontothestagetogetherandhe operate a tape recorder upon which was a tape of satin a chairas a nurse,in uniform, attachedthe three pre-recorded brain wave sounds accelerated 5 times contacts to his scalp – one at the back of the head, the to a frequency of 320 cycles’ (Lucier 1967b: 40; othertwoontopatthefront.Hesatperfectlystill,with ‘340 cycles’ in Lucier 1972: 23). The calculation of hiseyesclosedofcourse(asisnecessarytogeneratethe the frequency ratio is misleading; what Lucier is alpha rhythm). We had various resonating materials relatingtoeachofthespeakers:I’mprettysurewehad actuallyreferringtoisthatthebrainwaverecordings pebbles in the cones of some, there was at least one were played back in double speed and the result against a tam tam, and another with a snare drum – was recorded, and this process was carried out andsoon. five times. This way the original frequency of 10Hz, whichiswithinthealphawaverange,wasspedupto It took a long time for anything to happen – several 320Hz (10Hz times 255320Hz). However, the minutes – as John [Tilbury] had to clear his mind of tape sounds used on the recordings are about one any visual imagery. As soon as the very first sounds octavehigher.NicolasCollins(2013)recalls‘working happened, they stopped almost immediately as John [Tilbury] saw the speakers and their objects in his with a reel-to-reel tape with one channel of audio ‘mind’s eye’, thus arresting the alpha rhythm. But as twice as fast/high as the other. We would select eventuallywemanagedtokeepthesoundgoingmoreor oneortheothertoroutetoanordinary(unprepared) less continuously and I varied the distribution of the speaker. In addition, with reel-to-reel tape recorders channelsaswewenton.Thetotaldurationofthepiece onehadusuallyanoptionofafewdifferentplayback wasprobably around30minutes. (Bryars2013) speeds, which would further transpose the recording by octaves. I can’t be sure the tape was labeled These accounts are undecided as to whether or with the ‘‘correct’’ speed, and occasionally the not a written score existed in the late 1960s. In any correct speed was not available for a performance case,justasGordonMummahadpointedout(1968, anyway.’ discussed in 2.1 above), personal communication Curiously enough, the recording of Music for with the composer remained crucial, and a set of Alpha Waves, Assorted Percussion, and Automated electronicdevicespersonallyprovidedbythecomposer was used. Coded Relays (Lucier 1989), a four-minute offspring from the recording session of the 1982 LP (Lucier 1982),doesnotseemtoincludeanypre-recordedand accelerated alpha waves, even though the title 2.3. Recordings emphasises the control mechanism Lucier mentioned Composer-supervised recordings of Music for Solo in his description of the use of pre-recorded tape in Performer provide information about the work and Music for Solo Performer. Nicolas Collins, who is, its performance only to a certain extent. They might with Jack Stang, credited as ‘recording engineer’ on be limited in duration due to the nature of the the 1982 LP (Lucier 1982), reports that a 16-channel recording media (the 1982 LP versions last 1303000 or audio multiplexer was used that he had built and 150 respectively (Lucier 1982)) or the context of their programmedforLucier.Thedevicewascontrolledby creation (the 1976 video of Music for Solo Performer inRobertAshley’sseriesofcomposerportraitsMusic 5About1405500to1603000,1900000to2104000,2400000to2405000,2500500 with Roots in the Aether lasts about 280 (Ashley to 2504000, 2604000 to 2702000 in (Ashley 2005: The Music of Alvin 2005)). Also, they might be especially prepared for Lucier);503000to900000and1000000to1105000in(Lucier1982:SideA); 600000 to801000,2103500 to2303000,2505500 to2805000,3205500 to3505000 the recording media, like the recordings on the 1982 in (Lucier 2009). Because beginnings and endings are often not LP (Lucier 1982). Here, on Side A, Lucier ‘recorded precisely perceivable and a clear point of reference does not exist and superimposed eight versions of Music for Solo (e.g.thebeginningofanLPtrack),timingsaregiveninaresolution of five seconds. Pauline Oliveros’s version of four superimposed Performer, overlaying pairs of Western Classical and recordings(Lucier1982:SideB)istoodensetomakeoutadditional Jazz percussion instruments, as well as a cardboard soundsfromrecordingmedia. Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Universitaetsbibliothek, on 26 Oct 2017 at 11:12:49, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135577181300037X AlvinLucier’s MusicforSoloPerformer 21 Figure 3. 1976 video of Alvin Lucier’s Music for Solo Figure 4. 1976 video of Alvin Lucier’s Music for Solo Performer, from Robert Ashley’s Music with Roots in the Performer, from Robert Ashley’s Music with Roots in the Aether (Ashley 2005: The Music of Alvin Lucier, 1603900). Aether (Ashley 2005: The Music of Alvin Lucier, 2002200). & Performing Artservices, Inc., New York, used by & Performing Artservices, Inc., New York, used by permission. permission. a SYM 8-bit microcomputer. It replaced an earlier music, avoiding the distanced notion of music hardware device Collins had built for Lucier during documentary.6 his undergraduate studies with him at Wesleyan Unlike in any other composer-supervised record- University in 1975 and that would emit ‘a huge bang ing, the piece is allowed to start slowly while the when switching the alpha’. The new device, however, performer slips into alpha state. Actually, much time serveditsintendedpurpose:‘Thesoftwarelookedfor is given to the preparation of the performance, patterns in the alpha and channeled it among the and the camera observes closely how an assistant outputchannelsaccordingtoanalgorithm.Forevery (probably Robert Ashley (Ashley 2013)) fixes the minute of the performance the composer/performer electrodes to Lucier’s head. It takes no less than five could preset which channels would be available to minutes for the first sound to appear. When the algorithm – i.e., during the first minute only select camera then slowly zooms out and starts wandering among the 4 lowest drums; for minutes – play cym- among the instruments, the lack of connection bals and gongs; etc.’ Nevertheless, Lucier used the betweenrecordedimageandsoundbecomesapparent. deviceinonlyafewconcerts,insistedonre-titlingthe The camera pans while the stereo field remains recording for its CD release (Lucier 1989), and years steady.Andasmuchasthecameraseemstoscanthe later informed Collins that he had ‘deleted’ that setup to witness sound production, at just two version of the composition from his catalogue of instances do we actually see an instrument vibrate: a compositions (Collins 2013). reflectionoflightontheskinofabassdrumindicates While the 1982 LP versions are rather dense and the vibration of the reflecting surface, and at some almostnosilencesoccur,the1976videoaswellasthe pointthelidofacardboardboxflapseagerly(Ashley 2009 CD release give space to less active, almost 2005: 1105000 and 2001000, Figure 4). sparsesections.ItseemsobviousthattheLPversions focus on the sounding reality of the piece and the 3. SIGNALS situationofthelistenerwhoisdetachedfromthelive performance experience with its theatrical aspects. IfoneisabouttoanalyseMusicforSoloPerformerin The video, on the other hand – Robert Ashley used the context of sonification techniques, one needs to the rather new medium’s possibilities to its full spend special attention to the nature of the signals extent and documented Lucier’s performance in one observed and the procedures of their detection and 28-minute shot – celebrates the soloist’s sitting in an processing. We focus here first on the nature of the armchair and his techno-musical setup of brain elec- brain waves and the amplification devices used in trodes, long cable beams and loudspeakers attached Music for Solo Performer, while questions of loud- to various percussion instruments (Figure 3). The speakers and their modification are discussed further visual atmosphere is so intense that the actual sound down in connection with a 2012 Berlin performance. is obviously not the sole focus of the video. Still, as Ashley points out today, the aesthetic decision 6‘I’veneverlikedtheeditingofmusicIseeonTV.It’snot‘‘music.’’ to not edit brings the video itself into the realm of It’s‘‘about’’music’(Ashley2013). Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Universitaetsbibliothek, on 26 Oct 2017 at 11:12:49, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135577181300037X 22 Volker StraebelandWilm Thoben 3.1. Alpha waves EEG measurement device. As described above, three silver electrodes, a high-gain, low-noise differential Music for Solo Performer is exclusively based on par- amplifier and a steep-band or low-pass filter capable ticularbrainwavescalledalphawaves,alpharhythms of filtering out unwanted harmonics or neighbouring or alpha synchronisation. This signal is used to excite brainwaves are required. loudspeakers attached to percussion instruments. For the initial experiments at Brandeis University Alphawavesaresinusoid-likeneurologicaloscillations with physicist Edmond Dewan7 two Tektronix Type caused by rhythmical neurological activity in the 122pre-amplifierswithabuilt-inbandpassfilterand brain. They vary heavily in frequency and typically an additional band pass filter (a device custom built fluctuatebetween8and13Hz(see,e.g.,Shaw2003:4). by the United Transformer Corporation and a It is traditionally assumed that alpha synchroni- Krohn-Hite 330M filter) were used to obtain the sation occurs when no information is processed in alpha signal (Lucier 1967b: 40, 1972: 22–23, 1976: certain areas of the brain. Consequently it was 60).8 The three electrodes were placed on the fore- believed that putting the mind into a state of rest head of the performer and fixed with a headband. could enable a person to produce alpha waves. The The Tektronix pre-amplifier had a maximum gain absence of sensory information was one of the range of ,30dB, so a second one had to be wired in explanations for the so-called closing eye phenom- series to achieve enough amplification to boost the enon. For most people it is possible to enhance the signal to a sufficiently high voltage range. amplitudeofthesewavesdramaticallysimplybytheir Both differential pre-amplifiers were employed closing their eyes. Opening them again during a with the reference electrode as a ground signal to presentalphacycle,ontheotherhand,isoftencalled amplify the difference between both hemispheres of blocking. Recent studies, however, show that this is thebrain.Lucierworkedwiththissetupattheprem- notentirelytrue.Blockingdoesnotalwaysoccurand iere and at least one other performance of the piece itisassumedthatalphaareasofthebrainjustsplitup (Lucier 1967b). This equipment, originally built as in asynchronously pulsing areas (Shaw 2003: 6). measurement devices, seems to have been the first Electroencephalography (EEG) is the favoured choice for early performances because it was avail- method to measure alpha waves in a non-invasive able and tested together with Edmond Dewan. way suitable for musical performance. Electrodes To simplify the electronics and to provide a have to be placed on the scalp to record electrical portable device more suitable for touring, Gordon activityofthebrain.Thesmallestpossiblenumberof Mumma and William Ribbens constructed the electrodesnecessaryisthree,allofthemplacedonthe Cybersonics Differential Amplifier Low Pass Filter, forehead: one on each hemisphere of the brain and named after their enterprise Cybersonics, which one in the middle as a reference to the resting operated in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The device, potential of the brain. The reference electrode can presented as early as November 1966, contains a also be placed on the performer’s wrist to ensure the differential pre-amplifier with a gain of 40dB at an measurement of a voltage decoupled from the brain inputvoltageof10–25mVandafourth-orderlowpass activity.Afterthetwovoltageshasbeenacquired,the filterwithacutofffrequencyof14Hz(Mumma1968; difference between the two has to be calculated and 15HzaccordingtoLucier1972:23).9Theoscillograph amplified to accuratelydetect thebrain activity.This can be achieved by using a differential amplifier, where the reference electrode represents the resting 7ForadetailedaccountonEdmondDewan’sroleinthecreationof potential of the human body and the sum of all MusicforSoloPerformerandhisscientificbackgroundseeKahn (2010,2013:85–90),aswellasLucier(1976:60). variations of the other electrodes in relation to the 8The lowest possible cut-off frequencyof the built-in filter in the reference constitute the brain activity. To determine Tektronix122pre-amplifieris,50Hz,hencetheadditionalfilter. the frequency band of the brain signals, spectral TheKrohn-Hite330Mfilterhadanattenuationof12dB/octave. Lucier misspelled the company’s name in both papers where he processing has to be performed. Since the advance mentions this device (Lucier 1967b, 1976). The correct name is of digital equipment, measurements have become ‘Krohn-Hite’insteadof‘Kronhite’.Inhis1972contributiontothe more precise due to sophisticated signal analysis yearbookoftheGuildhallSchoolofMusic&DramainLondon, which is largely based on his Fylkingen article (Lucier 1967b), algorithms. For medical purposes and more accurate Lucier,fortheonlytime,mentionsabandpassfilterthathadbeen spatial resolution, usually 10 to 20 electrodes or a custombuilt by the United Transformer Corporation. According geodesicsetupisused(Miranda2010:156).Generally, to this account, the device had been used for the premier at BrandeisUniversityandwasreplacedinaNewYorkperformance the sum of all brain activity is measured. in November 1966, and therefore might have been used at the FylkingenFestivalinSeptemberthatyear(Lucier1972:22–3,see alsofootnote9). 9In1972,Lucierdescribedindetail:‘AttheLincolnCentreLibrary 3.2. Devices AuditoriumonNovember7,1966,aCybersonicsModel301pre- amplifierwithabuilt-inlowpassfiltersetat15cyclespersecond ThetechnologyusedbyLucierforperformingMusic was used, supplanting both Tektronix preamplifiers and United for Solo Performer is based on a simple neurological Transformer Corporation bandpass [sic] filter. This custommade Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Universitaetsbibliothek, on 26 Oct 2017 at 11:12:49, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135577181300037X AlvinLucier’s MusicforSoloPerformer 23 Figure 5. Oscilloscope tracings of amplifier output before and after Cybersonics Differential Amplifier Low Pass Filter (Mumma1968: 68).&University of California Press, usedby permission. of the filtered and amplified output shows that most It becomes apparent that it is not defined how to frequencies above 14Hz are erased (Figure 5). The measure alpha waves to perform Music for Solo signal shown here is a very short excerpt of a longer Performer.Thechoiceofthecutofffrequencyandthe sequence.Alphawavesareusuallyproducedinbursts, steepness of the filters determine the sound of the andthereforetheyhaveadecayingamplitudeenvelope. loudspeakers clapping against the instruments. This results in a decrescendo roll of rather steady If we applied modern digital measurement tech- frequency that excites the percussion instruments. niquesto Music for Solo Performer –in other words, John David Fullemann, a student of Lucier and algorithmicpatterndetection–theeventsdetectedin founder of Magic Boxes Co, started to work on his theoccurringburstswouldmanifestmoresparsely.In owndeviceforamplifyingalphawavesin1974,which contrast, filtering the signal doesn’t necessarily mean he named Alpha Amp I. Fullemann built the device theresultingsignalwouldconsistexclusivelyofalpha for experimentation on activating LED-lights with bursts. Rather, almost every signal which is recorded brainwaves. Alpha Amp I led to the development of by the electrodes, especially noise and interference, Alpha Amp II in 1975, which was then used for will produce output after filter stages, and therefore performance(Figure6).Lucieralsopurchasedoneof produce sound on thepercussion instruments.Hence these amplifiers for Music for Solo Performer. Some the design of the measurement equipment has a improvements were made in regard to the version tremendous effect on the sonic result.10 built by Mumma and Ribbens. Fullemann didn’t refer to the Cybersonics amp but invented a similar design. The filter stages were realised with opera- 4. PERFORMANCE tionalamplifiersinsteadoftransistorstodecouplethe filterstagesfromeachother.Furthermore,thecutoff To get an inside perspective of the performance practice of Music for Solo Performer, the authors frequencywaspushedto20Hz.Aheadphoneoutput participated in a performance on 23 March 2012 at was added, including a limiter stage and a passive Haus der Berliner Festspiele during the course of volume control to monitor the appearance of alpha MaerzMusik Berlin. Alvin Lucier performed the waves. Because of the massive amplification of ,60dB and the following limiter stage the alpha soloist’s part, while Hauke Harder, Nicolas Collins, signal would result in a clicking sound (Fullemann Volker Straebel and Wilm Thoben assisted. Nicolas 2013b). Fullemann revised this amplifier in 1999 and Collins had studied with Alvin Lucier in the 1970s builtversionIII.Therevisionsappliedtothisversion and supervised the electronic part of Music for Solo Performer numerous times, among them the 1976 includeanadditional activebandpassstageafterthe videoandthe1982LPrecordings.HaukeHarderhas fourth-order low-pass filter (Fullemann 2013a). been realising installations and performances by Luciersince1995,includingMusicforSoloPerformer, (F’notecontinued) [sic]preamplifierwhichismuchsmallerandlighterinweightthan 10In a version of Music for Solo Performer realised by Sukandar the Tektronix preamplifiers and which operates on 2 miniature Kartadinata and Steffi Weismann (2009, Berlin), Kartadinata 15–voltbatteriesinstead of the heavy TektronixType 125 Power appliedalgorithmsforactualdetectionofalphaburstsinsteadof Supply, proved to be much more convenient for performance justroutingthefilteredsignal.Thesignalwasmuchcleanerandless purposes’(Lucier1972:23). dense(seeEitel2012). Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Universitaetsbibliothek, on 26 Oct 2017 at 11:12:49, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135577181300037X 24 Volker StraebelandWilm Thoben Figure6. John DavidFullemann’s AlphaAmpII(1975). &John DavidFullemann, usedbypermission. which he did both as Lucier’s assistant and as piece. It was agreed not to use a piano because of solo performer. practical reasons and to prepare smaller speakers in addition to a few 1200 devices. Since the performance took place in a traditional 4.1. Choice of instruments stageandseatedaudiencesettingatHausderBerliner The reference for performing the piece was the score Festspiele, we decided to place the performer mid- and the following list of instruments provided by the stageandthepercussioninstrumentsinasymmetrical composer (Lucier 2012c): setup: > 1 large mixer, 16 outputs > 16 high-quality speakers, at least 1200 diameter Stageright Stageleft Largebassdrum Largebassdrum > 2 bass drums Cymbal Cymbal > 2 snare drums Snaredrum Snaredrum > 2 timpani Small timpani Largetimpani > 2 cymbals Tambourine Smallbell > 2 triangles Triangle Triangle > 1 tambourine Tamtam Largegong > 1 large tam tam Cardboardbox Metaltrash can > 1 small gong > 1 grand piano During the preparation the possibility of placing > 1cardboardboxlargeenoughtocontainaspeaker the instruments amidst the audience was discussed – > 1metaltrashcanlargeenoughtocontainaspeaker an arrangement suggested by a flow-chart diagram > 1 CD player. (Mumma1968:68;Lucier1972:24)andappliedquite The list, which roughly matches the choice of often in preceding performances (Harder 2012). At instruments suggested in the score (Lucier 2005a), Haus der Berliner Festspiele, this was impossible seems to reflect personal preference as the score due to the architecture and safety regulations of leaves the choice of instruments and other devices the space. quite open to the performer. Lucier entrusted Hauke Additionally, a CD with pre-recorded alpha waves HarderandNicolasCollinstomakedecisions onthe was played back using the stereo speaker system of choice of instruments, speakers and preparation in the venue. The alpha waves were transposed into an the manner of Lucier’s performance practice of this audible range. Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Universitaetsbibliothek, on 26 Oct 2017 at 11:12:49, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135577181300037X AlvinLucier’s MusicforSoloPerformer 25 hisperformancesofMusicforSoloPerformerin2007 and has continued using this technique (Harder 2013). For the Berlin performance, we decided to mount several 7–900 speakers on microphone stands and prepared them with small spherical-shaped objectslikewood, cork,rubber,plasticorbaremetal screws. Similar to Harder’s technique, a small card- board tube with a plastic cap was fixed onto the membrane with rubber bands (Figure 7). Depending on which instrument was to be excited, an appro- priate material was chosen: in other words, a screw for the gong or a wooden ball for the cymbals. During setup instruments were tested one by one and adjustments were made. Usually the distance, materialandpositionwouldbechangedaccordingto the personal sonic preferences of the participants. Mostofthedecisionsweremadebeforethecomposer joined the rehearsal. When he did, Lucier just com- mented and adjusted a few speakers himself. He chosetoabandonafewofthepreparationsinfavour of letting the bare membrane almost touch the drumhead of the timpani. The sound of flapping rubber on the timpani enabled us to produce more low-frequency content and less dominant transients. 4.3. Formal organisation The form and length of the piece are not determined Figure 7. Prepared loudspeaker for Alvin Lucier’s Music bythescore,butitseemslikeLucierhasestablisheda forSoloPerformer,MaerzMusik,23March2012,Hausder repeating framework for deciding how the piece is Berliner Festspiele. Photo: Giuliano Obici. & Giuliano going to be performed. Obici,used bypermission. Nicolas Collins and Hauke Harder were each operatingeightinstrumentsoneightfadersatthemixing desk on the opposite side of the hall. Each assistant 4.2. Speaker preparation played the instruments on one side of the stage. Generally, there seem tobe two different approaches After the initial adjustments of the individual on how to activate the resonance of the instruments. speakers had been completed, Lucier gave both Luciersuggestsusinglarge1200 speakersplacedonor assistants instructions on which instruments to acti- directly in front of the instruments. Ideally, the vate at the beginning and which at the end of the movement of the membrane should make an instru- piece. Furthermore it was decided that a climax in ment resonate without even touching it, but this is terms of density and loudness should happen in the rarely possible. Lucier favours cone-type speakers second half of the piece. This loose improvisatory above horn-type speakers since ‘the air pressure framework was used for a first run-through of the from the cone excursions will cause the grill cloth piece. During that run-through the composer would to bump in reaction to the bursts of alpha. This intervene when he liked or disliked what the assis- bumping effect is an efficient means for resonating tants did. Other decisions made about the formal these instruments. The composer has found that the architectureweretohavethegongalmostastheonly KLH Model 4 loudspeaker is fine for this purpose’ activated instrument for nearly five minutes at some (Lucier 1972: 24). point in the performance or the moment when the Inanothertechniqueemployedinseveralperform- recorded and transposed alpha waves were to be ances of the piece done by other performers, playedbackontheregularspeakersystemofthehall. solenoids or prepared speakers are used to activate These were memorised and repeated in the next the instruments. On the 1982 LP recording (Lucier run-through and the performance. 1982), Collins used solenoids to play metalophones. Reconsidering the above-mentioned observations Laterhewouldaddcorktothespeakerconestogeta we see that the assistants play a crucial role in moremallet-likesound(Collins2013).Harderstarted how the performance of the piece comes into being. preparing small speakers with different material for The choice of instruments, the speaker setup and Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Universitaetsbibliothek, on 26 Oct 2017 at 11:12:49, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135577181300037X 26 Volker StraebelandWilm Thoben preparation,aswellaspartsoftheformalorganisation tryingtoshapethepiecewithhisalpha‘‘performance’’, are decided upon and played, in large part, by the butmadeitclearthattheformoftheconcertwasreally non-stage performers. in the hands of the assistant – hence the sometimes awkward to and fro before and after rehearsals and concerts’ (Collins 2013). 5 SITUATING ‘MUSIC FOR SOLO PERFORMER’ 5.1. Music in sonification discourse The analysis of the score of Lucier’s Music for Solo Performer,itsperformancepracticeandthetechnology Neither the role of the assistant, who controls the flow of the alpha signal to loudspeakers and percus- involved have revealed a far more complex situation sion instruments, nor the very fact that musical than the direct transformation of alpha signals into decisions are made during the work’s performance resonatingpercussionsounds.However,itisthisimage of the direct translation of brain activity into sound are mentioned in most writings that refer to Music thatgivesreasonforthework’sfameanditsperception for Solo Performer as an early example of artistic sonification (Rosenboom 1997: 10; Schoon and in sonification research. Dombois 2009: 2; Kahn 2010, 2013; Miranda 2010: Over the years, the composer seems to have taken 157–8; Grond and Berger 2011: 391; Mullen, Warp different perspectives on this issue. In 1971 he and Jansch 2011: 469; Grond and Hermann 2012: emphasised the musical decisions he was making: 216). Just a few scholars address the impact of the ‘Ilearnedthatbyvaryingbothshortburstsandlonger technologyinvolved(Mumma1968;Kahn2010,2013; sustained phrases of alpha plus making musical decisionsastotheplacementofloudspeakers,choice Pickering 2010: 85), and only musically informed of resonant instruments or objects, volume control, authors address the role of the assistant (Mumma 1968; Dewar 2009: 160; Rogalsky 2010: 135). channeling and mixing, I was able to get a wide Alreadyinonethefoundingtextsofthesonification variety of sonorities as well as retain the natural discourse, ‘An Introduction to Auditory Display’ by physical quality that seemed asked for by the sound Gregory Kramer (1994), a close connection between source itself’ (Lucier 1976: 61). sonificationandmusicismade,rightatthetimewhen Later,Lucierwithdrewfromtheconceptofmaking sonification was about to be established as a tool for artistic decisions intermsof musical form and sound production: ‘In making Music for Solo Performer researchandafieldofstudy.Kramerusesamottoby (1965), I had to learn to give up performing to make SufiteacherHazratInayatKhan(1882–1927)fromhis MysticismofSoundandMusic–‘intherealmofmusic the performance happen. By allowing alpha to flow the wise can interpret the secret and nature of the naturally from mind to space without intermediate working of the whole universe’ (Khan 1996: 6) – but processing, it was possible to create a music without replaces, without mentioning the change, ‘music’ with compositional manipulation or purposeful perform- ‘sound’, thereby broadening the perspective con- ance’ (Siegmeister, Lucier, and Lee 1979: 287). No siderably(cf.Straebel2010:292).Intheaftermath,the wonder that in the 1976 video the assistant remains invisible.11 We only see his hands when in the International Community for Auditory Display beginningheattachestheelectrodestoLucier’shead. (ICAD) has established a strong tradition of artistic sonification (of often questionable artistic quality), Ontheotherhand,Lucierexplainedthathe‘didn’t want to show mind control y Discovery is what I and only recently have scholars addressed the dis- tinction of scientific and artistic sonification more like, not control. I’m not a policeman. I always thoroughly (Sterne and Akiyama 2012: 547–53; thought of splicing alpha waves, or cutting them up inastudioyasbeingabrainsurgeon–andI’mnot Supper 2012: 252–61) or critically (Vickers and Hogg 2006; Hermann 2008). a brain surgeon. So I completely eschewed that form y and let that alpha just flow out, and the compo- While arguing about different approaches to the sition was then how to deploy those speakers, what definitionofsonificationanditsconnectiontomusic, these authors usually don’t question their under- instruments to use’ (Lucier and Grimes 1986: 59), standing of what music is. Grond and Hermann quotedin(Dewar2009:163).Theroleoftheassistant (2012) state that ‘we can speak of sonification when remained a crucial, yet precarious one, as Collins sound is used as a medium that represents more reports: ‘When I assisted he [Lucier] never spoke of than just itself. In other words, sound becomes sonificationwhen itcanclaimtopossessexplanatory 11Robert Ashley explained, ‘I didn’t show the mixing board or powers; when it is neither solely music nor serves as Nic[olas]Collinsbecauseitdidn’tseemrightforthepiece.Inmost cases[oftheperformancespresentedinAshley’sMusicwithRoots mere illustration’ (213). But what does it mean for in the Aether (Ashley 2005)] the ‘‘mixing’’ is done by one of the sound to be ‘solely music’? It seems that the authors performers;whenthe‘‘mixing’’isactivelyshapingthepiece,which set the concept of absolute music as a self-evident IthinkisnotthecasewithNic[olasCollins]intheLucier’(Ashley 2013). definition, thereby rejecting those concepts where Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Universitaetsbibliothek, on 26 Oct 2017 at 11:12:49, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135577181300037X