UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff NNeebbrraasskkaa -- LLiinnccoollnn DDiiggiittaallCCoommmmoonnss@@UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff NNeebbrraasskkaa -- LLiinnccoollnn Faculty Publications, Department of History History, Department of 2013 TThhee UUnniivveerrssiittyy iinn EExxiillee aanndd tthhee GGaarrddeenn ooff EEddeenn:: AAllvviinn JJoohhnnssoonn aanndd hhiiss rreessccuuee eeffffoorrttss ffoorr EEuurrooppeeaann JJeewwss aanndd IInntteelllleeccttuuaallss Gerald Steinacher University of Nebraska-Lincoln, [email protected] Brian Barmettler University of Nebraska-Lincoln Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/historyfacpub Steinacher, Gerald and Barmettler, Brian, "The University in Exile and the Garden of Eden: Alvin Johnson and his rescue efforts for European Jews and Intellectuals" (2013). Faculty Publications, Department of History. 145. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/historyfacpub/145 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the History, Department of at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Publications, Department of History by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Published in Reassessing History from Two Continents: Festschrift Günter Bischof, ed. Martin Eichtinger, Stefan Karner, Mark Kramer, Peter Ruggenthaler (Innsbruck University Press, 2013), pp. 49–68. Copyright © 2013 Innsbruck University Press. Gerald Steinacher, Brian Barmettler The University in Exile and the Garden of Eden1 Alvin Johnson and his rescue efforts for European Jews and Intellectuals Alvin Johnson Alvin Johnson was born in Homer, Nebraska, in 1874. The son of Danish immigrants, Johnson grew up in Nebraska a typical country boy whose values and work ethic came from farm life. He always "considered himself a bona fide pioneer and a Midwesterner to the core."2 His father was a strong believer in social justice and racial and social equality, and his mother was a feminist. About his father, Johnson once wrote that "pro-semitism was so firmly fixed in his blood [. .. ] that it became, apparently, a transmissible acquired characteristic, which runs undiluted into the fourth generation."3 This upbringing shaped him. According to U.S. sociologist Lewis A. Coser, Johnson "was imbued with the populist and progressive traditions of the Middle West."4 German author Monika Plessner adds: "With his youthful creativity and his fighting dignity [Alvin Johnson] personified .. , typical American culture. In his eventful life he always sided with the weaker ones, fought against majorities for minorities, and stood up against oppression in the name of the persecuted ones."5 I would like to thank Dr. Jean Cahan, Director of the Harris Center for Judaic Studies at the Cniversity of l'iebraska-Lincoln, for spurring my research interest in Alvin Johnson. Special thanks also go to Tracy Brown for her feedback and final edits of this paper. 2 Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, New Schoo/.' A History of the New School for Social Research (New York: Free Press, 1986), 32. Alvin Johnson, Pioneer} Progress: An Autobiography hy Alvin Johnson, with a foreword by Max Lerner (Lincoln: Cni versity of Nebraska Press, 1960), 11. The first edition was published in 1952 by Viking Press in ~ew York. 4 Lewis A. Coser, Refugee Scholars in America: Their Impact and Their Expen'ences (New Haven and London: Yale Univer sity Press, 1984), 102. "Er verkorpert in jugendlicher Geisteskraft und streitbarer Wurde ein Stuck typisch amerikanischer Kultur. In seinem ereignisreichen Leben hat er immer auf Seiten der Schwachen gestanden, hat sich fUr 11inderheiten mit Mehrheiten herumgeschlagen, im ~amen der Unterdruckten und Verfolgten aufbegehrt." Monika Plessner, "Die Deutsche ,University in Exile' in ~ew York und ihr amerikanischer Grunder", Frankfurter Hefte Vol. 19, 1964, 49 G. Steinacher, B. Barmettler I The C niversity in Exile and the Garden of Eden As a boy, Johnson attended Nebraska public schools. When he was eighteen, he en rolled at the University of Nebraska in Lincoln, where he studied economics as well as classical and German literature. Several years later, he served in the U.S. Army during the Spanish-American War (1898).6 He was always proud of his Midwestern roots, as illustra ted by the dedication to his autobiography: "To my wife Edith Henry Johnson, pioneer's daughter, bearer of the spirit that thrust resolutely westward from the New England coast and won a continent for the mightiest republic in history."7 When Johnson was older and living in New York, he liked to say that he had experi enced the best of two worlds - both his humble rural background and urban life in a big cosmopolitan city. He was known to reminisce at one moment about farm life in Nebras ka, and a moment later to quote the German poet Friedrich Schiller in fluent German.s American journalist and educator Max Lerner saw in Johnson "a multifarious man who is not by that fact a split man."9 Like so many Americans and Europeans in the nineteenth century,Johnson admired German science and culture. Many U.S. scholars earned docto rates from German universities or had at least spent some time in Germany. Likewise, the faculty and students at the University of Nebraska, as well as the local population, had strong ties to Germany. German-speaking settlers from all over Europe (even Germans from Russia) were common in the state and German was widely spoken prior to 1917.10 Although Johnson acknowledged the many good qualities of the university system in German-speaking Europe, he also criticized certain negative characteristics - for examp le, the elitist attitude that was widespread among German-speaking professors. In his autobiography, Johnson hinted at his admiration for Germany's liberal and open-minded traditions. He admired the revolutionaries of 1848 and the 5 chleswiger, who had made a 181-86,181. All translations are the authors'. 6 Benita Luckmann, "Eine deutsche Cniversitat im Exil. Die 'Graduate Faculty' der 'New School for Social Re search'" in M. Rainer Lepsius, ed., SoZiologie in Deutschland und Osterreich 1918-1945, Kainer Zeitschrift fUr Sozio logie und Sozialpsychologie, Sonderheft 23/1981 (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1981),427-41,427. 7 Max Lerner, foreword to Alvin Johnson, Pioneers Progress: An Autobiography (Lincoln: C niversity of Nebraska Press, 1960). Rutkoff and Scott, New School, 32. 9 Lerner, foreword to Johnson, Pioneer's Progress, xii. 10 Frederick C. Luebke, Immigrants and Politics: The Germans of Nebraska, 1880-1900 (lincoln: Cniversity of~ebraska Press, 1969). 50 G. Steinacher, B. Barmettler I The t.:niversity in Exile and the Garden of Eden new home in the Midwest: "There was a Little Deutschland of Germans who hated Bis marck but loved beer and high voltage cheese."!! After receiving his Master's degree, Johnson was accepted to Columbia University, where he earned a Ph.D. in economics in 1902. After graduation, he held academic posi tions at Columbia, the Universities of Nebraska, Chicago, and Texas, as well as Cornell and Stanford. In 1916, he took a yearlong leave of absence from Cornell in order to work for the New Republic, which was at the time one of the most influential liberal magazines in the United States. Johnson returned to Cornell, but when the United States entered the First World War in 1917, he resigned from his post to return to the New Republic as an assistant editor. According to Monika Plessner, the "driving force" in Johnson's life was "to fight for a better world" and to make that world "materialize ... here and now."!2 During and after the war, he tried - unsuccessfully - to sway public opinion in favor of a fair peace settlement for Germany. In the end, however, U.S. president Woodrow Wil son gave in to the demands of Great Britain and France to harshly punish the defeated enemy. Part 1: Intellectuals in Exile The New School In 1922, Johnson became director of the New School for Social Research in New York, which would soon become a haven for a generation of scholars who had fled from Hitler and Mussolini. In the 1930s, Johnson's New School became a major center for social research, almost unmatched in the United States. The New School started from humble beginnings. It was first organized in 1918 and began as a project of dissident academics. In 1917, historian Charles A. Beard resigned from Columbia University together with his colleague and close friend James Harvey Robinson. Columbia's president wanted to make the faculty duty bound to support the war politics of the U.S. Congress and President Wilson. Not only did Beard disagree with the official U.S. stance on the war, he saw this forced support as a threat to academic 11 Johnson, Pioneers Progress, 35. 12 "Fur eine bessere Welt zu kimpfen, die sich jetzt und hier verwirklichen muss, war der starke Antrieb seines Le bens"; Plessner, "Die Deutsche ,t.:niversity in Exile"', 181. 51 G. Steinacher, B. Barmettler I The l:niversitv in Exile and the Garden of Eden freedom. So he and Robinson gathered together a group of friends and fellow scholars, all of whom were associated with the New Republic, where Johnson was working. Johnson began taking part, along with Beard, Robinson, and others, in weekly sessions planning for a new school. Based on European traditions and the ideas of American educational reformer John Dewey, the New School for Social Research in N ew York pioneered a new model for adult education in America. Inspired by the German Abendvolkshochschule - a type of secondary schools for adults13 - Johnson wanted to make the New School a cen ter for research and adult learning with a popular teaching program that would not only educate but also critically analyze U.S. society and politics and "educate the educated."14 The New School was also meant to be a home for liberal and radical thinkers. As Claus Dieter Krohn puts it: "One of Uohnson's] convictions was that only a teacher with a mis sion could be a good teacher.»!; Fostering research was another part of the New School's mission. As early as 1915, Johnson was arguing the merits of research requirements for professors. In his essay "In Defence of the Professor Who Publishes," Johnson wrote, If I were a university president, loving harmony, but forced by financial straits to pay my professors, in part, with promises, I should take pains to make the proportion of mere promise large in the case of men who are writing books. Those who never write at all I should endeavour [sic] to pay in hard cash. Thus could I barter justice, a great good, for peace, the greatest good of all. Or better, I should try to man the institution entirely with writers of books. Thus could I dispense altogether with justice - excellent, but expensive commodity!,6 In 1922, Johnson got his chance to helm a university. He was elected director of the New School and remained in that position for the next eighteen years. Historians Peter Rutkoff and William Scott write: When Oohnson] accepted the directorship of the New School, he immersed himself in its spirit and activities. Johnson expanded adult education, worked to reestablish the research division, and organized numerous programs to 13 Plessner, "Die Deutsche 'University in Exile"', 181-86,182. 14 "Erziehung der Erzogenen", Plessner, "Die Deutsche 'l:niversity in Exile"', 181-86, 182. 15 Claus-Dieter Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile: Refugee Scholars and the New School for Social Research, trans. Rita and Robert IGmber (Amherst: l:niversity of Massachusetts Press, 1993), 61. 16 Alvin Johnson, "In Defence of the Professor Who Publishes", Midwest Quarterly 2:4 Ouly 1915), 343-56, 347. 52 G. Steinacher, B. Barmettler I The University in Exile and the Garden of Eden train business executives, labor leaders, educators, and civic leaders. Similarly, he reaffirmed the New School's policy to act as a forum to address contem porary issues and propose solutions for social problems. And like the earlier founders, Johnson fervently believed in the possibility of human progress."17 By 1924, Johnson was basically making all the key decisions that shaped the institution in its formative years. Sitting on the New School's advisory board at this time were Ne braska-born Pulitzer Prize-winning author Willa Cather, jurists Felix Frankfurter, Roscoe Pound, and Learned Hand, journalist Walter Lippmann, New Republic editor Bruce Bliven, Eleanor Roosevelt, Sidney Hillman of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers, and a former president of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, Julius Barnes.ls The University in Exile In 1927, Johnson became the associate editor of the Enryclopedia of the Social Sciences, an ambitious project with hundreds of contributors from the United States and Europe. Johnson was very impressed by German scholarship and thus made an effort to include many entries written by German scholars in the Enryclopedia. From this experience, he became personally acquainted with a number of German academics and was able to establish networks in Europe. Soon after Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933, the Nazis purged the country's universities. In that year alone, 1,200 Jewish and socialist intellectuals lost their jobs. Some of these victims of Nazi persecution had been contributors to the Enryclopedia. Ul timately, the number of intellectuals barred from working as well as from participating in cultural and social life in Germany reached 12,000. Thus began the massive "brain drain" from the Reich. Some scholars went to Great Britain, some to Switzerland, and others to France. Thousands of intellectuals made their way from Europe to the United States, leaving an intellectual legacy that can be traced to this day. Assistance for the refugee scholars was often left up to private organizations. The Notgemeinschqft Deutscher Wissenschqftler im Ausland, a German self-help organization based in Switzerland, was able to find jobs for thirty professors at the University of Istanbul. Across the Atlantic, meanwhile, Johnson was thinking about bringing such scholars - 17 Rutkoff and Scott, New Schoo4 31. 18 Rutkoff and Scott, New S choo4 35. 53 G, Steinacher, B, Barmettler I The l:niversity in Exile and the Garden of Eden particularly those whom he knew from the Encyclopedia - to the United States. Initially he seemed to have in mind only the Marxist economist Emil Lederer. Soon, however, he came up with the idea of establishing a "University in Exile" based at the New School and formed around a whole group of exiled scholars. He was especially interested in German sociologists and political scientists who worked in the tradition of Max Weber. The Nazi expulsion of Jewish and socialist scholars from universities and public ser vice had made it clear to Johnson that protests in the form of letters or public demonst rations would not be enough: "I, therefore, propose a protest which will arrest the atten tion of every person interested in scholarship, namely, the prompt establishment of an institution to be known as 'The University in Exile,'" wrote Johnson. "The world is quick to forgive invasions of academic liberty by a forceful government. It long ago forgave Mussolini. It will never forgive Hitler as long as we have a working University in Exile."19 Moreover, the University in Exile was Johnson's means of protest not only against Nazi barbarism but also against anti-Semitism and ignorance in his own country. And it was through Johnson's personal commitment that the first twelve scholars were invited to New York. As president of the New School, Johnson also had a secondary agenda. Up to that point, the New School had been a small experimental institution for adult education, but with the European brain drain, that could change.2o In a bold bid to bring top European scholars to the New School, Johnson aimed to relocate an entire academic community. He was particularly interested in scholars from the Hochschule fiir Politik in Berlin. Founded in 1920, the Berlin institution had a guiding philosophy similar to that of the New School,21 Rutkoff and Scott point out how remarkable Johnson's project was: "In a single stroke, Johnson transplanted a school of German social science to the United States and fulfilled his own pledge, made more than ten years earlier, to make the New School a center for social science research."z2 Krohn points out the deliberate naming of Johnson's project: "In choosing the name 'University in Exile' ... he wanted to demonstrate publicly that the university tradition now suppressed in Germany was to 19 Quoted in Luckmann, "Eine deutsche l:niversitat im Exil", 427-41, 428. 20 Krohn, Intel/eduals in Exile, 59. 21 Luckmann, "Eine deutsche t:niversitat im Exil", 427-41, 435. 22 Rutkoff and Scott, New Schoo~ 85. 54 G. Steinacher, B. Barmettler I The Cniversity in Exile and the Garden of Eden be preserved for an indefinite period."23 "For," as Alvin Johnson wrote, "it was the uni versity itself that was being exiled from Germany."24 But there were many obstacles to overcome. It was difficult to arrange visas for some scholars, as American quota regulations remained unchanged even during the war. The U.S. State Department often opposed the entry of certain emigres on the grounds that they were Jewish or "radical thinkers." And the economic hardship and high unemploy ment caused by the Great Depression made it even harder to secure entry for exiles. President Roosevelt sympathized with Johnson's efforts but was unable to break the often xenophobic resistance of immigration authorities at the time. To make matters worse, anti-Semitism was also widespread on U.S. campuses. As Krohn writes: "When Alvin Johnson first broached his plan of setting up a university in exile for displaced scholars, many of his colleagues thought he could not possibly succeed in placing Jews in an American university."25 For this and other reasons, many universities sabotaged rescue efforts. The Austrian economist Joseph A. Schumpeter, who was by invitation teaching at Harvard University, attempted to create a committee to help refugees from Nazi Ger many. Given the difficulties of bringing scholars with Jewish backgrounds to the United States in the face of pervasive anti-Semitism, Schumpeter too wanted to attract "as few Jews as possible." 26 Luckily for Johnson and the scholars he was trying to help, New York was a more open-minded and diverse destination. The city remained very connected to Europe-little Italy was still Italian at the time, and immigrants from allover Europe preserved elements of their ethnic identities and kept close ties to their homelands. In 1933, New Yorkers elected as their new mayor the progressive politician Fiorello La Guardia, making him not only the city's first Italian American mayor,27 but also the first person with a Je wish background to hold the position.28 La Guardia and other like-minded New Yorkers championed immigrants and ethnic minorities, and opposed fascism. Johnson could therefore rely on some support and sympathy from local politicians. 23 Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile, 63. 24 Johnson, Pioneer~ Progress, 338. 25 Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile, 22. 26 Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile, 23. 27 Luckmann, "Eine deutsche Universitiit im Exil", 427-41, 429. 28 Although La Guardia's father was an Italian Catholic and his mother was Jewish and from Trieste (which was, back then, part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire), the future mayor became a member of the Episcopalian Church. 55 G. Steinacher, B. Barmettler I The Cniversity in Exile and the Garden of Eden Money was always a problem for the University in Exile. Johnson wrote endless ap peals, but money trickled in very slowly. After the New York Times published an article about the project, however, things began to change. The Rockefeller Foundation donated a large share of the necessary funds, but a number of other foundations and industrialists also made generous contributions. Meanwhile, the faculty grew from twelve in 1933 to 26 by 1941, and continued to grow during the war years. The student body was expanding as well: By the fall of 1940, students numbered 520.29 What Johnson accomplished with the University in Exile was no small achievement: Almost every exiled scholar who can be counted among the reform econo mists found a haven at the New School for Social Research in New York. The importance of this institution for German scholarship in exile lies not just in its having accepted the largest group of expelled university faculty but also in its offering a place where the German tradition in the social sciences, having just being eradicated in its country of origin, could be carried on. The school's division of social sciences, staffed by an international faculty unique among American institutions of higher learning, would soon become the most sig nificant center of its kind in the United States." The "University in Exile" contributed to a fruitful dialogue between continental and American thought. Krohn lists 184 emigre scholars who were affiliated with the New School. Among them were Hans Kelsen, Claude Levi-Strauss, Gaetano Salvemini, Hannah Arendt and Max Wertheimer. For the New School's twenty-fifth anniversary, the renowned German writer Thomas Mann, who occasionally guest lectured at the institution, delivered the laudation "Alvin Johnson - World Citizen."31 Other prominent scholars including theologian Paul Tillich and philosopher Ernst Bloch also taught general seminars at the New Schoo1.32 Johnson was not always successful in his attempts to bring scholars over, however. He tried to get Marc Bloch out of Nazi-occupied France, but State Department hurdles stymied Johnson's efforts. Bloch stayed in France, joined the Resistance, and in 1944 was executed by the Gestapo. 29 Coser, Refugee Scholars in Amenca, 104. 30 Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile, 59. 31 Plessner, "Die Deutsche 'Cniversity in Exile''', 185. 32 Coser, Refugee Scholars in Amenca, 106. 56 G. Steinacher, B. Barmettler I The University in Exile and the Garden of Eden Still, Johnson managed to save hundreds of others. With Hitler's annexation of Aus tria in 1938, came the next big wave of refugee scholars. The Austrian Marxist Paul F. Lazarsfeld made his way to the United States and became one of the founding fathers of social research in the United States. Other Austrians included Erich Hula, a former assistant to constitutional lawyer Hans Kelsen, and Felix Kaufmann, an epistemologist and Husser! student who was initially a jurist of the Kelsen schooP3 The work of these scholars from Austria - where most of the contemporary economic theory had origina ted - made a huge impact on research in the United States.34 Soon, Germans and Austrians were joined by other nationals from a long list of countries, including Algeria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Russia, Spain, and Switzerland. At this point, the New School might easily have deve loped into a broadly European university. But French and Belgian scholars, joined by Paris-based Czechoslovakian, Hungarian, and Polish academics, formed the Ecole Libre des Hautes Etudes in New York - a project that was supported by Johnson in many ways. Classes at the Ecole were taught in French, while lectures at the University in Exile were in English (although sometimes with a strong foreign accent). Because of the Ecole Libre des Hautes Etudes, the faculty at the University in Exile remained mostly German and Austrian. The Graduate Faculty at the New School constituted "a little piece of Germany in New York," as one emigre recalled.35 Coser stresses this aspect: Almost all of them came from Germany and Austria, even though some what later a few scholars from other countries were added to the [. .. J Faculty roster. Most of them had held prestigious academic positions in their native country; some of them had been academic Marxists, more of them had been fairly close to German social democracy, and several had been highly placed civil servants in the Social Democratic administration of Prussia. Their ho mogeneity of background and of age as well fostered a tendency among the refugees to seek out the companionship of like-minded men and women and to create what I have called a gilded ghetto in New York.36 33 Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile, 75. 34 Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile, 45. 35 "Es war doch ein kleines Stiickchen Deutschland in ~ew York," quoted in Benita Luckmann, "Eine deutsche Universitat im Exil", 427-41, 429. 36 Coser, Refugee Scholars in America, 106-07. 57