Chapter 1_________________________________________ Economics and Theory Althusserian Post-Marxism In the popular autobiography The Future Lasts Forever, Althusser says that, during the fatal weekend in which he murdered his wife Hélène Rytman, they argued very vio- lently. On Sunday morning he awoke to find her lying dead, her neck broken, and he ran through the courtyard yelling “I’ve strangled Hélène.” To explain why, he confesses that, born in Algeria, raised Catholic and celibate, and living in Paris, he studied philosophy, married Hélène, joined the Communist Party, and acquired high academic status. At the same time, he engaged in real and imagined sexual af- fairs with which he tormented Hélène and suffered from bleak depressions that often sent him to a mental hospital. Before the murder his reputation and influence were waning, but after the murder his reputation suffered a se- rious decline. Several reviewers suggested that the scan- dalous murder, not the Marxist theory, sums up his work’s meaning. In George Steiner’s words, “what subsists” of Al- thusser’s “influential” thought is “the piteous scandal of the life” (118). His work has, nonetheless, influenced many con- temporary theorists, who include Tony Bennett, Judith But- ler, John Frow, Michel Foucault, Ernesto Laclau, Pierre Macherey, Toby Miller, Chantal Mouffe, Stephen Resnick, and Richard Wolff.1 Despite the decline of his reputation and the “piteous scandal of the life,” his work remains influential but in 23 © 2005 State University of New York Press, Albany 24 Post-Marxist Theory different ways. It is well known that in his structuralist phase Althusser defends the scientific character of Marxism and undermines the humanist import of the traditional and the Hegelian schools. The faults of his defense are also well known: as scholars have shown, Althusser’s Marxism pre- serves the traditional belief that the economy determines so- cial life, at least in the last instance, as well as the rationalist faith that the world conforms with the systematic mind (see Montag 72 and Hirst, Law43–46). Less familiar, Althusser’s critique of Marxism’s foundational ideals has fostered poststructuralist or post-Marxist approaches which expose a discourse’s figural or subjective import, including its racial, sexual, class, gendered, or political character. The Structuralist Marxism of Louis Althusser Althusser’s structuralist approach first emerges in For Marx, which brings together his essays on the young Marx, dialectics, theater, science, and humanism. In the late 1950s and the early 1960s, when he wrote these essays, Marxism- Leninism, the French Communist Party, and the French Left enjoyed an unusual prestige. At the same time, the on- going revelations of Stalinist dogma and brutality or totali- tarian oppression led Marxists to revive the early, humanist works of Karl Marx. Althusser grants that that Feuerbach’s humanism influ- enced the young Marx, but he argues that Marx repudiated this speculative humanism and adopted a scientific outlook. Acritic of established religion, Feuerbach argued that, by at- tributing society’s powers to God, religion alienates human kind from its essential powers or “species-being.” Even though a society’s art, science, industry, government, or edu- cation produced impressive works, the established religion attributed these achievements to God’s will, divine provi- dence, or some equally mystical figure, not to humanity’s so- cial powers. A critic of Hegel, Feuerbach also argued that what Hegel calls the “cunning of reason” mystifies social forces in a similar way; they simply develop the predeter- © 2005 State University of New York Press, Albany Economics and Theory 25 mined rationality of the world spirit, not the inherent poten- tiality of their own powers. Althusser admits that this secular, humanist critique of religion and Hegel allowed Marx “to think” the contradiction between the state’s “essence (reason) and its existence (un- reason)” (Marx225). Still, Althusser insists that in The Ger- man Ideology Marx discovered the faults of Feuerbach’s theory: it remains speculative. Like Hegel, Feuerbach does not abstract the theoretical concepts of the mind from the na- ture of empirical reality; he idly deduces empirical reality from the mind’s concepts and, denies, as a result, the authen- ticating force of what Marx calls “sensuous human activity” (German 197). Althusser suggests that, unlike Feuerbach, Marx rejects Hegel’s speculative self-consciousness and goes on to develop a purely scientific Marxism; as Althusser says, the “rupture with every philosophical anthropology or hu- manism is no secondary detail; it is Marx’s scientific discov- ery” (Marx227). To justify this rupture with “all philosophical human- ism,” Althusser develops a rationalist view of science. He ar- gues that it can grasp reality only if it rigorously develops its concepts and its terms, not if it conforms with practice, fact, or truth. In these formal terms, scientific theory establishes its own criteria of truth; by contrast, what Althusser calls ideology imposes the familiar conformity of theory and prac- tice or ideas and facts. This conformity is not altogether neg- ative. It is well known that Althusser endowed ideology with a positive role: like the Foucauldian notion of discourse, which I discuss in the next chapter, it constructs or “inter- pellates” a subject. Ideology does not represent falsehood or misrepresentation; ideology explains the subject’s role in a society’s socioeconomic structure, what Althusser calls the subject’s relation to the relations of production. Because the- ory preserves its own criteria of validity, he claimed, nonetheless, that theory resists this ideological interpella- tion and effectively grasps the nature of reality. Since Althusser both defended this theoretical realism and supported the French Communits Party, some critics say that his antihumanist account of Marx’s development © 2005 State University of New York Press, Albany 26 Post-Marxist Theory defends communist dogma and oppression (See Aronowitz 180–81; Barrett 87–88; Fougeyrollas 20–22; Glucksman, “Marxism” 289; Jay 405, 411; and Marty 134–36). It is true that he remained a party member for his whole life, yet his account consistently opposes Stalinist and totalitarian views of communism. The reason is that in his account the scien- tific method presupposed by Marx’s critique of Hegel di- vorces the object of experience from the object of knowledge. Scientific theory preserves the relative autonomy of its field and methods, while ideology imposes the traditional “dialec- tical unity” of principles (“theory”) and practice or ideas and facts. Totalitarian theorists, who consider the dialectical unity of scientific truth and political practice a profoundly ir- rational and dogmatic “groupthink,” argue that this unity enables a “disciplined party” to ensure the “revolutionary fulfillment” of its doctrines and the “violent” elimination of all dissent and resistance (see Brzezinski and Friedrich 87, and Krancberg 56). Althusser, by contrast, considers all ver- sions of this unity a humanist myth. For this reason, Carl Freedman says, “no other theoretical approach could so stubbornly resist both official” Stalinism and its humanist “inversions” (Freedman 1990, 322). Other critics rightly object that Althusser’s account of Marx’s development fails to identify the specific point at which Marx’s new science breaks with Hegelian humanism and that the account betrays the rationalist’s unduly opti- mistic belief that some preordained harmony brings nature and reason together (see Aronowitz 180–81; Glucksman, “Marxism” 289; and Smith, Althusser97). Still other critics accept Althusser’s rationalist account of science but fear that his account of ideological interpellation imposes a ro- botlike, “functionalist” conformity with established dis- course (Montag, “Marxism” 72; Hirst, Law, 43–46). In an influential formulation, Paul Hirst says that the ideological apparatus can only reproduce the social relations of capi- talist society if this apparatus ensures the unity of ruling class ideology. The unity of the ruling class, in turn, pre- serves the unity of its ideology and of the ideological appa- ratus. As a consequence, the ideological apparatus reduces © 2005 State University of New York Press, Albany Economics and Theory 27 intellectuals to structural supports of ruling-class ideology (Law50–51). An objection to this critique is that, following Gramsci, Althusser divides the power of the state from the state ap- paratus. State power is what a distinct class exercises, whereas state apparatuses, which include repressive struc- tures (courts, legislatures, prisons, police, army) and ideo- logical structures (political parties, schools, media, churches, families) are what intellectuals run. State power is a politi- cal matter bearing on who does or does not rule a country, while ideological state apparatuses are a structural matter reproducing social relations. Hirst admits that Althusser preserves the formal autonomy of the ideological state aparatus, but Hirst still argues that Althusser’s persistent “economism” requires the ideological state apparatuses to function as agents ensuring ruling class unity (Law43–44). This argument assumes that, as agents, the state appara- tuses realize a unifying intention imposed by the ruling class. However, as I show in the next chapter, Althusser’s ac- count of the ideological apparatuses approximates Fou- cault’s anti-intentionalist view, which maintains that the disciplinary technologies governing the body reproduce themselves or their institutions but do not enforce ruling- class ends and aims. Moreover, in the later Reading Capital, where he distin- guishes between philosophy and science, he goes on to repu- diate the “foundational” rationalism of For Marx. Like Foucault, who rejects the humanist grounds of a discourse’s truth, he says that he does not seek any such guarantees. He does not give up the idea that theory grasps reality, but he denies that theory reduces practice to a slavish instrument of an autonomous mind. He argues that theory follows its own practices, and practice presupposes its own theory. To an extent, this criticism of foundational truths sim- ply denies the dogmatic Stalinist belief that philosophical truth ensures political success. To a larger extent, this self- criticism suggests that epistemological norms do not enable philosophy to establish the scientific status of any or all the- ories. As Althusser says, Marx rejected “every philosophical © 2005 State University of New York Press, Albany 28 Post-Marxist Theory ideology of the subject” because it “gave classical bourgeois philosophy the means of guaranteeing its ideas, practices, and goals” (Althusser, Essays 178). Stephen Resnick and Richard Wolff rightly suggest that this criticism of tradi- tional epistemology parallels Richard Rorty’s antifounda- tional account of them (Resnick and Wolff, Knowledge 17–19, 94–95). That is, Rorty rejects the traditional episte- mological norms defended by classical philosophy and ac- cepts the diverse discourses engaged in the philosophical “conversation”; Althusser too rejects science’s unifying truth on transcendent grounds and acknowledges a discourse’s di- verse epistemologies. As Resnick and Wolff say, “[T]ruths, then, vary with the theories in and by which they are pro- duced. There is no inter-theoretic standard of truth” (“Althusser’s Liberation” 65). Althusser claims, in addition, that in philosophical realms theory adopts partisan stances representing a sub- jective or “relativist” commitment to the class struggle. As he explains, [I]f the philosophy of philosophers is this perpetual war (to which Kant wanted to put an end by intro- ducing the everlasting peace of his own philosophy), then no philosophy can exist within this theoretical relation of force except in so far as it marks itself off from its opponents and lays seige to that part of the positions which they have had to occupy in order to guarantee their power. (Essays166) Unlike Kant, who believed that reason overcomes the “an- tinomies” of the mind and imposes peace on warring philo- sophical schools, Althusser does not reduce philosophical schools to mere antinomies or demand that the schools ac- cept a “rational” consensus opposing relativism or nominal- ism; rather, he maintains that, if philosophy is in the last instance class struggle at the level of theory, the politics which constitute phi- losophy bear on . . . a quite different question: that of © 2005 State University of New York Press, Albany Economics and Theory 29 the ideological hegemony of the ruling class, whether it is a question of organizing it, strengthening it, defending it, or fighting against it. (Essays167) Balibar rightly says that Althusser’s notion of class struggle in theory does not preserve the realism of the early theory, but the notion also does not justify liberal views or express hostility to Marxism; rather, this notion opens the “relativist” conventions of the social sciences or the humani- ties to political critique. Consider a difficult case: The Post- modern Condition, in which Jean-François Lyotard says that the “grand narratives” in which God, the class struggle, or social progress explain historical change can no longer jus- tify the technocracy (60). Many scholars call this work anti- thetical to Marxism because it considers modern discourses relativist or incommensurable;2 however, this work clearly has post-Marxist import. In “La Place de l’alienation dans le retournement Marxiste” (“The Place of Alienation in the Marxist Transformation” ([1969]), an early essay that re- sponds to the 1960s political upheavals, Lyotard grants Al- thusser’s claim that the scientific theory discovered by Karl Marx establishes its formal independence of its sociohistori- cal context. Lyotard also accepts Althusser’s belief that the scientific theory of Marx discovers, undermines, and opposes Hegelian theory. Lyotard argues, however, that Marx rejects Feuerbach’s Hegelian negation or destruction of particular spaces or realities because, close to the Frankfurt School, Ly- otard considers alienated labor an oppositional force, rather than a vestige of Hegelian humanism, as Althusser claimed. In other words, Lyotard admits that the capitalist econ- omy and its state bureacracy grant science the formal au- tonomy defended by Althusser; however, while Althusser examines how the “ideological apparatus of the state” re- produces itself, Lyotard argues that in Marx’s account the state and the economy work together to circulate and repro- duce capital. He maintains that science does not resist ide- ology; science fosters and defends the reproduction of capital and the exploitation of workers, teachers, and stu- dents. In the former USSR and in the Western world the © 2005 State University of New York Press, Albany 30 Post-Marxist Theory growth of economic exploitation and of the technocratic state bureaucracy has given the sciences, including Marx- ism, a conservative function: they justify the capitalist eco- nomic enterprises and the state bureaucracy and alienate both workers and students. While Althusser considers alienation a vestige of Hegelian humanism, Lyotard emphasizes the traditional alienation of students and workers and opposes the capitalist and communist state bureaucracy and the Communist Party’s dogmatic views and conservative functions. In The Postmodern Condition(1979), Lyotard still grants Althusser’s belief that the various sciences establish and preserve their formal autonomy, but he goes on to reject Hegelian Marxism, which he now identifies with the technocracy. Construing this identification as a feature of a new or “postmodern” era, he argues that the technocracy faces a legitimation crisis: the “grand narratives” in which God, the class struggle, or social progress explain historical change can no longer justify the technocracy (60). In Wittgenstein’s positivist or analytic terms, he says that the cognitive, prescriptive and evaluative “forms of life” or “language games” of the sciences expect their performance or competence, not the grand narratives, to legitimate them. In other words. Lyotard takes the spe- cialized sciences or disciplines to provide their own legitimat- ing “ideological” rationales because the traditional grand narratives can no longer justify them (“le <petit récit> reste la forme par excellence que prend l’invention imaginative, et tout d’abord dans la science” [98]). Althusser also says that, to establish formal autonomy, science denies that the grand teleological histories of the humanist tradition or the univer- sal norms of human reason explain a science’s importance or ground the specialized disciplines; however, Lyotard critiques the sciences on broad humanist grounds—formally incom- mensurate, the cognitive, prescriptive, and evaluative lan- guage games of the disciplines fail to comprehend such horrifying evils as the Holocaust; Althusser, who claims that the sciences face unending conflicts with their enabling ide- ologies, adopts the partisan stance that the disciplines’divi- sions represent class or political differences. © 2005 State University of New York Press, Albany Economics and Theory 31 Althusserian Post-Marxism: From Étienne Balibar to Stephen Resnick and Richard Wolff Balibar acknowledges this postmodern import of Althusser’s later views but condemns their relativist or partisan charac- ter. He grants that Althusser faulted his initial science/ideol- ogy opposition and his foundational “theoreticism” and redefined philosophy as “class struggle in theory.” In an ad hominem manner, Balibar argues, however, that, since Al- thusserian concepts such as “antihumanism” “or “reproduc- tion” contain their oppositions within them, Althusser’s self-criticism shows a suicidal, self-destructive drive, as his subsequent murder of his wife Hélène indicates (Écrit68–73). For example, Balibar reduces Althusser’s political dilemmas to a “schizophrenic situation, in which, although criticizing al- most every aspect of . . . the [French] Communist organization and of . . . the bourgeois academic institution, he would con- sider it as an absolute necessity to remain a member of the or- ganization and to work in the institution” (“Structural” 113). Balibar claims that, as a result, Althusser blurred his “deci- sive break with epistemological relativism” and reintroduced a “‘class determination’ of the ‘lines of demarcation in the- ory.’”3In other words, to preserve the conceptual truth and sci- entific objectivity of the still “rational” Althusser, Balibar says that “genuine” Althusserian theory “takes its distance from any form of ‘constructivism’or relativism, even in the sophis- ticated form given it by Foucault” (Balibar, “Object” 163; see also Nelson 166–67; Resch, Althusser 166; Smith, Reading 81–82 and 215; Sprinker, “Current Conjuncture” 829–31). Resnick and Wolff, who, along with Anthony Callari, David Ruccio, and others, organized the Rethinking Marx- ism collective, also defend the conceptual truth of Marxism, but they maintain that, far from suicidal or schizophrenic, Althusser successfully critiques his earlier rationalist sci- ence and adopts a justified partisan stance, which estab- lishes what they call the “Althusserian standpoint” and I term post-Marxist theory: “[I]t is possible and, from an Al- thusserian standpoint, necessary to interrogate every theory in terms of its social conditions and its social consequences. © 2005 State University of New York Press, Albany 32 Post-Marxist Theory Indeed, what a Marxian epistemology does is to erect those conditions and consequences as its criteria of the acceptabil- ity of all existing theories, i.e., its partisan attitude toward them”(“Althusser’s Liberation” 67). Although Resnick and Wolff grant that, as Balibar charges, Althusser’s partisan ac- count of philosophical schools or movements has the rela- tivist import that also characterizes Foucault’s histories or Lyotard’s language games, Resnick and Wolff still argue that Althusserian theory goes beyond relativism: its “‘relativist’ commitment to the plurality of theories and their truths is merely the prelude for the specification of their partisan positions” (Knowledge36). Resnick and Wolff forcefully demonstrate, moreover, that Althusser’s account of Marx’s theories undermines tra- ditional empiricist and rationalist epistemologies, especially their reductive insistence that the plain economic facts or the underlying historical realities ground legitimate theory (82–89). Plain fact or an absolute historical ground does not overcome the multiplicity or diversity of discourse because the conceptual processes of diverse discourses are influenced or “overdetermined” by social life’s many facets. As a result, Althusser’s account undermines not only empiricist and ra- tionalist epistemologies but also all essentialist theories, in- cluding the traditional opposition between materialism and idealism as well as reductive notions of cause and effect or appearance and reality. Resnick and Wolff grant that Althusser inconsistently preserved economic determinism in the famous “last in- stance”; they argue, however, that, since he considered the whole an overdetermined structure in which each part, event, or process influences every other, he effectively repudiated such economic and epistemological essentialism and initiated a post-Marxist or Marxian epistemology (Knowledge93–95). They still claim, however, that Marxian theory “is motivated by, focused upon, and aims at an ever-deeper knowledge of” society’s “economic aspects and, in particular, the class processes and their interrelationships” (Knowledge 96–97). Since, like Balibar, they redefine class processes in terms of the production and distribution of surplus value, not one’s © 2005 State University of New York Press, Albany