AlternAtive Fuels— the Future oF hydrogen third edition A F — lternAtive uels t F h he uture oF ydrogen third edition By MichAel FrAnk hordeski Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hordeski, Michael F. Alternative fuels : the future of hydrogen / by Michael Frank Hordeski. -- Third edition. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-1-4665-8024-4 (Taylor & Francis distribution : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-88173-687-2 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-88173-688-0 (electronic) 1. Hydrogen as fuel. 2. Fuel switching. 3. Hydrogen cars. 4. Automobile industry and trade--Forecasting. I. Title. TP359.H8H67 2012 333.79’4--dc23 2012038738 Alternative fuels : the future of hydrogen--third edition / by Michael Frank Hordeski ©2013 by The Fairmont Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Published by The Fairmont Press, Inc. 700 Indian Trail Lilburn, GA 30047 tel: 770-925-9388; fax: 770-381-9865 http://www.fairmontpress.com Distributed by Taylor & Francis Ltd. 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA E-mail: [email protected] Distributed by Taylor & Francis Ltd. 23-25 Blades Court Deodar Road London SW15 2NU, UK E-mail: [email protected] Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 10: 0-88173-687-2 (The Fairmont Press, Inc.) 13: 978-1-4665-8024-4 (Taylor & Francis Ltd.) While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher, authors, and editors cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions. t c ABle oF ontents Preface .............................................................................................................vii Chapter 1 The New Fuel Mix ......................................................................1 Chapter 2 The Oil Economy ......................................................................25 Chapter 3 The Auto Revolution ................................................................59 Chapter 4 Fuels for the Auto .....................................................................91 Chapter 5 The Future of Transportation ................................................121 Chapter 6 Fuels and the Environment ...................................................145 Chapter 7 The Hydrogen Economy .......................................................283 Chapter 8 Solar Hydrogen .......................................................................207 Chapter 9 Nuclear Hydrogen ..................................................................227 Chapter 10 Biomass Sources ......................................................................247 Chapter 11 Renewable Futures .................................................................261 Chapter 12 Alternative Fuel Paths ...........................................................277 Index ..............................................................................................................298 v P reFAce Some predict oil prices at $150 a barrel, due to soaring world de- mand and destabilizing foreign conditions and rocketing energy regu- lations. While new petroleum sources become feasible to extract and renewable sources become more economical, political and environmen- tal concerns clash, preventing a path to our energy future. Climate de- stabilizing carbon emissions push the future towards more renewables, but new petroleum finds attract energy investments of over $500 billion/ year for drilling. Has the energy world lost its bearings? Not since the energy shocks of the 1970s has the availability and source of energy be- come so important. One survey indicated Americans believe energy security should be a top priority of U.S. energy policy, with wide support for a moon shot type of effort to develop a hydrogen economy. The dependence of the U.S. on oil creates a national security vulnerability that could result in widespread economic problems and increased global instabilities. Many factors affect our energy use, one of the most important of which is the availability of fuels. Mineral fuels can be divided into three types: solid, liquid and gas. In the first group are the coals. In the second group are the petroleum products, which are rich in both carbon and hydrogen. These products provide a large range of fuels and lubricants. In the third group are the natural gases from petroleum deposits, the bu- tane gases and coal and coke gas. Liquids include gasolines, or petrols. Their physical state allows them to be used directly in spark-ignition engines. The two principal combustible elements common in coal and petroleum are carbon and hydrogen. Of the two, hydrogen is more ef- ficient. The value of a fuel depends mainly in its calorific value. Pure carbon has a calorific value of 14,137 Btus, while hydrogen has a value of 61,493 Btus. The higher the proportion of hydrogen a fuel contains, the more energy it will provide. The hydrogen content of liquid and gaseous fuels ranges from 10% to 50% by weight. They provide far more heat than solid fuels, which range from 5% to 12% by weight. The less oxygen in the fuel, the more easily the hydrogen and carbon will burn; that is, the lower the oxygen content of a fuel, the better it will burn. The ideal vii fuel would be pure hydrogen. Other factors used in assessing the merits of different fuels include moisture content, extraction, storage, and transportation. Most fuels come directly or indirectly from carbohydrates—vegetable matter which results from photosynthesis occurring in green plants. The energy in these fuels is due to the sun. When burning fuels are extracted from liv- ing plants, we are recovering recent solar energy. When burning coal or gas, we are tapping ancient solar energy. Hydrogen is the most abundant element on the planet, but it can- not be harvested directly. It must be extracted from another material. A wide variety of materials contain hydrogen, which is one reason it has attracted widespread support. Environmentalists envision an energy economy where hydrogen comes from water and the energy used to accomplish this comes from wind. The nuclear industry sees a water based hydrogen economy, but with nuclear as the power source that electrolyzes water. Nucleonics Week views nuclear power as the only way to produce hydrogen on a large scale without adding to greenhouse gas emissions. In the fossil fuel industry, hydrocarbons are seen as providing most of our future hydrogen. They already have a head start since almost 50% of the world’s commercial hydrogen now comes from natural gas and another 20% is derived from coal. The automobile and oil companies are betting that petroleum will be the hydrogen source of the future. It was General Motors that coined the phrase “hydrogen economy.” A hydrogen economy will not be a renewable energy economy. For the next 20-50 years, hydrogen will overwhelmingly be derived from fossil fuels or with nuclear energy. It has taken more than 30 years for the renewable energy industry to capture 1% of the transportation fuel market (ethanol) and 2% of the electricity market (wind, solar, biomass). A hydrogen economy will require the expenditure of hundreds of billions of dollars to build an entirely new energy infrastructure (pipe- lines, fueling stations, automobile engines). This will come from public and private money. Making hydrogen takes energy. We may use a fuel that could be used directly to provide electricity, or mechanical power or heat to in- stead make hydrogen, which then can be used to make electricity. We can run vehicles on natural gas or generate electricity using viii natural gas now. Converting natural gas into hydrogen and then hydro- gen into electricity increases the amount of greenhouse gases emitted. Hydrogen is the lightest element, being about eight times lighter than methane. Compacting it for storage or transport is expensive and energy intensive. Another rationale for making hydrogen is that it is a way to store energy. That could be of benefit in that renewable energy sources such as wind and sunlight cannot generate energy on demand. Many see hybrid vehicles as a bridge to a new type of transportation. Toyota and Honda have been selling tens of thousands of cars that have small gas engines and batteries; American automobile companies are following their lead. Toyota, Honda, and others are also looking in the future to substitute a hydrogen fuel cell for the gasoline engine. That work will continue. Some believe that the hydrogen economy has serious, perhaps fatal shortcomings, while others consider it the path to a future of relative energy independence. Topics of interest include energy policy, fuel supply trends, statis- tics and projections, oil reserves, alternative fuel scenarios, fuel utiliza- tion, sustainable energy paths, cost analysis, fuels, and development and regulatory issues. An energy evolution is taking place and will be pushed by concern for the environment, economics, and power genera- tion needs. Fuel cell/electric vehicles will ultimately provide our power and transportation future. Chapter 1 is an overview of the barriers to implementation. It introduces the various technology and air emission issues, safety, and alternatives such as natural gas, hydrogen gas, methanol, ethanol, and fuel cells. Chapter 2 investigates the evolution of oil supplies; coke and gas fuels; city gas; natural gas; petroleum and sulphur sources; and crude oil prices, refining, and distribution. Fuels and autos are topics of Chapter three. It includes the auto fu- ture, electric cars, revivals, the auto industry, car designs, and the impact of mass production. Chapter 4 investigates the impact of auto technology. It considers fuel cell/electric cars, fuel cell cabs, the fuel cell future, and recent ad- vances in fuel cell auto technology. The new transportation is the theme of Chapter 5. Fueling stations are important for any alternative fuel, especially hydrogen. Fuel cell ad- vances will also pace hydrogen cars as well as the level of government ix support. An interesting concept for hydrogen cars is their proposed use as mobile utilities. Chapter 6 outlines environmental trends and concerns. This in- cludes Kyoto and global warming, temperature cycles, deforestation, and the greenhouse effect. Chapter 7 is concerned with hydrogen’s characteristics, production issues, and storage choices. Hydride storage is considered, as well as liquid fuel and safety issues. Solar sources of hydrogen are the subject of chapter eight. Photo- catalytic and photovoltaic materials are discussed, along with solar heat- ing and boilers. Solar power satellites promise to provide cheap clean power for hydrogen, provided the economic and engineering problems can be solved. Chapter 9 is concerned with a nuclear future for producing hy- drogen. Small modular reactors are considered, as well as fission and breeder power. Safety concerns are reviewed, along with market factors. Biomass is considered as a source of hydrogen fuel in Chapter 10. Various biomass crops are discussed, along with waste products and gasification and liquefaction processes. Future trends for renewable energy sources are covered in Chapter 11. This includes solar growth, renewable initiatives, net metering, bio- mass, and wave energy. Alternative energy programs are the theme of Chapter 12. This in- cludes growth, research, and initiative trends. Many thanks to Dee, who did much to organize the text and get this book in its final shape. x