america AlohA Adria L. Imada america AlohA Hula CirCuits tHrougH tHe u.s. empire Duke University Press Durham and London 2012 © 2012 Duke University Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper ∞ Designed by Heather Hensley Typeset in Warnock Pro by Copperline Book Services, Inc. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data appear on the last printed page of this book. An earlier version of chapter 4 was published as “Hawai- ians on Tour: Hula Circuits through the American Empire” in American Quarterly 56, no. 1 (March 2004). Portions of chapter 5 were previously published as “The Army Learns to Luau: Imperial Hospitality and Military Photography in Hawai‘i” in The Contemporary Pacific 20, no. 2 (2008). Many times I have watched the ships sail in and out of the port of Honolulu, and many times the question came to my mind. Who made this great world? Why are people different? Why are there different ways of talking? What does the world look like away from here, far away? Victoria Nalani Kneubuhl, The Conversion of Ka‘ahumanu CoNteNts ix note on lAnguAge xi Acknowledgments 1 introduction Aloha America 29 chApter 1 Lady Jane at the Boathouse: The Intercultural World of Hula 59 chApter 2 Modern Desires and Counter-Colonial Tactics: Gender, Performance, and the Erotics of Empire 103 chApter 3 Impresarios on the Midway: World’s Fairs and Colonial Politics 153 chApter 4 “Hula Queens” and “Cinderellas”: Imagined Intimacy in the Empire 213 chApter 5 The Troupes Meet the Troops: Imperial Hospitality and Military Photography in the Pacific Theater 255 epilogue New Hula Movements 269 chronology Hawai‘i Exhibits at International Expositions, 1894–1915 271 AbbreviAtions of collections, librAries, And Archives 273 notes 337 glossAry 339 bibliogrAphy 357 index Note oN laNguage Following modern Hawaiian orthography, I use diacritical marks— the ‘okina (marking a glottal stop) and the kahakō (a macron indicat- ing a long vowel)—for Hawaiian-language terms (e.g., Hawai‘i). Since ‘ōlelo Hawai‘i (Hawaiian language) and its Native epistemology are critical and foundational to this study, I do not italicize Hawaiian words, in order to avoid marking an indigenous language foreign. Words such as “Hawaiian” are English words and therefore do not require diacritical marks. Nineteenth-century and early twentieth- century Hawaiian-language sources did not employ diacritical marks, therefore I have preserved the original spelling of names and words in these documents, with the exception of prominent names that follow contemporary spelling conventions (e.g., Lili‘uokalani; Kapahukulaokamāmalu). Additionally, I use “Hawaiians” and “Native Hawaiians” to refer to Kanaka Maoli, or the indigenous people of the Hawaiian archi- pelago. Signifying indigeneity, these terms do not reference Hawai‘i as a place of residence and therefore are not equivalent to a term like “Californian.”