Alma Mater Studiorum – Università di Bologna DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN ARCHEOLOGIA E STORIA DELL'ARTE Ciclo 28 Settore Concorsuale di afferenza: 10/N1 (CULTURE DEL VICINO ORIENTE ANTICO, DEL MEDIO ORIENTE E DELL’AFRICA Settore Scientifico disciplinare: L-OR/05 (ARCHEOLOGIA E STORIA DELL'ARTE DEL VICINO ORIENTE ANTICO TITOLO TESI The Architecture of the Persian Period in the Levant Presentata da: Hashem Mohammad Omar Khries Coordinatore Dottorato Relatore Professore. Massimo Montanari Professore. Nicolò Marchetti Esame finale anno 2016 PREFACE The excavations carried out at Tell Bait Mirsim by William Foxwell Albright in the twentieth century A.D. considered as the prevailing norm for the later excavations in the Bronze and Iron Ages sites in the Levant. Dunand's excavations at Sidon are one of the earliest field works in the northern Levant. The major contribution to our knowledge of architecture in the southern Levant was made by Carl Watzinger in the 1920s. In 1985, G. R. H. Wright reviewed and condensed the works of the earlier authors in his "Ancient Building in South Syria and Palestine", Volumes I-II. In 1992, another useful book was issued under the title "The Architecture of Ancient Israel from the Prehistoric to the Persian Periods" by Aharoni Kempinski and Ronny Reich (eds). Relevant contributions are also to be found in "Transeuphratene" periodical. The need for writing the present dissertation has emerged after the author has finished his master thesis in 2011, which was under the title: "Archaeology and History of Jordan in the Persian Period." Ever since the author realized that the Levant is a single geographical and cultural entity, and the Levantine sites could not therefore be considered in isolation from each other just because of the political borders, since the problem may persist. This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Bologna. The research was conducted under the supervision of Professor N. Marchetti in the Department of Archaeology, University of Bologna, between December 2012 and July 2016. Part of this thesis has been presented in the following publication: Khries, H. 2016; The Persian-Period Building of Tell es-Sa’idiyeh: Residency or Fortress?. Ocnus: Quaderni della Scuola di Specializzazione in Beni Archeologici 24 Hashem Khries July 2016 i ACKNOWLEGDMENTS Foremost, I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my advisor Prof. Nicolò Marchetti for all his efforts and the endless support of my Ph.D. study and related research, for his patience, motivation, and knowledge. His continued support was crucial to the success of the dissertation and benefited me in all the time of writing it. In addition to my supervisor, I would like to thank the rest of my thesis committee for their judgments and encouragement, but also for the hard question which incented me to widen my research from various perspectives. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Prof. Pierfrancesco Callieri, Professor of Archeology and Art History of India and Central Asia at the University of Bologna for his unparalleled assistance, who has read my thesis, shared with me his exceptional experience in Iran and granted me essential and crucial notes to enhance the thesis. My sincere thanks and appreciation also go to Prof. Paolo Matthiae, the director of the Ebla Expedition and Professor of Archaeology and History of Art of the Ancient Near East at the University of Rome, La Sapienza, who provided me with valuable information about his excavations at Tell Mardikh. Thanks also go to Prof. Frances Pinnock, Professor of Archaeology and History of Art of the Ancient Near East at the University of Rome, La Sapienza for her advice. I would also like to thank Prof. Stefania Mazzoni, Professor of Archaeology and History of Art of the Ancient Near East at the University of Florence, who assist me in reading some pottery vessels from some sites. I would also thank Prof. Helene Sader from the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at the American University of Beirut for her valuable assistance during the stay as an affiliate at the American University of Beirut. Thanks also to my friends and the people I met at the University of Bologna and other colleagues throughout the period of my research. Last but not the least; I would like to thank my family: my parents, my wife, and my brother and sisters for encouraging me spiritually throughout writing this thesis and my life in general. ii ABSTRACT Author: Hashem Mohammed Khries (University of Bologna). The earliest scholars were not concerned about preparing extensive investigations linking the Persian- period building remains excavated in the entire Levant together. Moreover, the research interests of scholars caused some impediments to the study of this period viz in the last decades; the Achaemenid period has been neglected by the scholars who -in turn- focused on the earlier and later periods for religious reasons. Too, while some regions have been studied abundantly, but it was not the case in other areas, which makes our knowledge is incomplete. From the explanation side, some scholars try to interpret the architectural remains from an ethnic perspective or unsubstantiated personal fancies, so their arguments were utterly lacking any objectivity. This thesis explores what are the Persian architectural and ornamental impacts on the Levantine architecture and the relations between Persian-period sites in Syria-Palestine region. Too, the architectural remains and their contents benefited us to clarify the settlement patterns in the regions being discussed. The author analyzed the ground plans of the buildings and their architectural features and ornamental motifs by conducting a descriptive, analytical, and interpretative study. He also conducted comparisons with similar buildings outside the Levant, especially in Fars to obtain a more comprehensive and systematic study, and then extracting any direct or indirect Persian influences. This has given us a better understanding of the nature of the social, political, and religious life in the entire Levant and the knowledge gap has been bridged to a satisfying extent. This study has demonstrated a few of the Achaemenid impacts, especially on the northern coastline of the Levant. Keywords: Persian Period; Achaemenid Period; Architecture; Levant; Building Techniques; Building Types. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE ...................................................................................................................................................... i ACKNOWLEGDMENTS ............................................................................................................................ ii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. iii LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................................... vii LIST OF PLANS ......................................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................... xiii LIST OF PLATES ...................................................................................................................................... xx CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER 2: ARCHITECTURE OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD IN THE SOUTHERN LEVANT ............ 3 2.1. THE JORDAN VALLEY ......................................................................................................... 3 2.1.1. Tell es-Sa’idiyeh ............................................................................................................... 3 2.1.2. Tel Goren (in Arabic Tell el-Jurn) .................................................................................... 8 2.2. HIGHLANDS AND EASTERN DESERT OF TRANSJORDAN ......................................... 12 2.2.1. Rujm Al-Henu (West) ..................................................................................................... 13 2.2.2. Tell El-‘Umeiri ................................................................................................................ 15 2.2.3. Ed-Dreijat ........................................................................................................................ 16 2.2.4. Buseirah .......................................................................................................................... 18 2.3. GALILEE ................................................................................................................................ 25 2.3.1. Mizpe Yammim (in Arabic Jebel el-Arbain) .................................................................. 26 2.3.2. Ayyelet Ha-Shahar .......................................................................................................... 32 2.3.3. Hazor (in Arabic Tell el-Qedah or Waqqas) ................................................................... 35 2.3.4. Jokneam .......................................................................................................................... 41 2.4. JEZREEL VALLEY ............................................................................................................... 44 iv 2.4.1. Megiddo (in Arabic Tell el Mutesellim) ......................................................................... 44 2.5. JUDEAN FOOTHILLS .......................................................................................................... 51 2.5.1. Khirbet Nimra ................................................................................................................. 51 2.5.2. Lachish (in Arabic Tell ed-Duweir) ................................................................................ 53 2.5.3. Beth-Zur (in Arabic Khirbet et-Tubeiqa) ........................................................................ 65 2.6. NEGEV ................................................................................................................................... 67 2.6.1. Tell Jemmeh (Ancient Gerar) ......................................................................................... 68 2.7. THE SOUTHERN COAST OF THE LEVANT ..................................................................... 81 2.7.1. Tell Keisan ...................................................................................................................... 83 2.7.2. Tel Shikmona (in Arabic Tell es-Samak; in English Tell of Fish) .................................. 86 2.7.3. Tell Abu Hawam ............................................................................................................. 88 2.7.4. Tel Megadim (in Arabic Tell Saḥar) ............................................................................... 92 2.7.5. Tel Dor (in Arabic Khirbet el-Burj) ................................................................................ 95 2.7.6. Nahal Tut (in Arabic Wadi el-Shaqaq) ......................................................................... 102 2.7.7. Tel Mevorakh (in Arabic Tell Mubarak) ...................................................................... 111 2.7.8. Makmish (Tel Michal) .................................................................................................. 115 2.7.9. Tell Qasile ..................................................................................................................... 122 2.7.10. Jaffa ............................................................................................................................... 123 2.7.11. Tel Ya’oz (in Arabic Tell Ghazza)................................................................................ 125 2.7.12. Ashdod .......................................................................................................................... 131 2.7.13. Ashkelon (in Arabic ʿAsqalān) ..................................................................................... 133 CHAPTER 3: ARCHITECTURE OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD IN THE NORTHERN LEVANT ....... 139 3.1. THE NORTHERN COAST OF THE LEVANT ...................................................................... 139 3.1.1. Al-Mina (in English the port) ........................................................................................ 139 v 3.1.2. Tell Sukas ...................................................................................................................... 160 3.1.3. Amrit (Ancient Marathos) ............................................................................................. 165 3.1.4. Byblos (in Arabic Jubayl) ............................................................................................. 170 3.1.5. Beirut ............................................................................................................................. 173 3.1.6. Sidon (in Arabic Saidah) ............................................................................................... 176 3.1.7. Tell el-Burak ................................................................................................................. 183 3.1.8. Sarepta (Modern Sarafand) ........................................................................................... 186 3.1.9. Kharayeb (in English the ruins) .................................................................................... 189 3.2. HINTERLAND OF NORTHERN LEVANT ........................................................................... 193 3.2.1. Tell Mardikh (Ancient Ebla) ......................................................................................... 193 3.2.2. Karkemish ..................................................................................................................... 202 CHAPTER 4: BUILDING TECHNIQUES DURING THE PERSIAN PERIOD .................................... 205 CHAPTER 5: BUILDING TYPES AND URBAN SPACE USE IN THE LEVANT DURING THE PERSIAN PERIOD .................................................................................................................................. 212 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................. 217 Appendix A ............................................................................................................................................... 226 Appendix B ............................................................................................................................................... 248 Appendix C ............................................................................................................................................... 275 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................... 280 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: The excavated findings in the villa of Tell es-Sa’idiyeh .............................................................................. 5 Table 2.2: The excavated findings in Building 234 of Tell el-Jurn ............................................................................. 10 Table 2.3: The excavated findings in the sanctuary of Mizpe Yammim ..................................................................... 27 Table 2.4: The excavated findings in the Western Complex on the summit area of Mizpe Yammim ........................ 31 Table 2.5: The excavated findings in Citadel II of Hazor ............................................................................................ 36 Table 2.6: The excavated findings in Stratum X building of Jokneam ........................................................................ 42 Table 2.7: The excavated findings in Building 736 of Megiddo ................................................................................. 48 Table 2.8: The excavated findings in Building 1295 of Megiddo ............................................................................... 50 Table 2.9: The excavated findings in the building of Khirbet Nimra .......................................................................... 52 Table 2.10: The excavated findings in the Palace of Lachish ...................................................................................... 55 Table 2.11: The excavated findings in the “Solar Shrine” of Lachish ......................................................................... 61 Table 2.12: The excavated findings in Building A of Tell Jemmeh ............................................................................ 69 Table 2.13: The excavated findings in Building B of Tell Jemmeh ............................................................................ 76 Table 2.14: The excavated findings in Building B of Tell Keisan (Level 3b) ............................................................. 84 Table 2.15: The excavated findings in Stratum II complex of Tell Abu Hawam ........................................................ 89 Table 2.16: The excavated findings in the complex of Nahal Tut ............................................................................. 103 Table 2.17: The excavated findings in Building 264 of Tel Mevorakh ..................................................................... 112 Table 2.18: The excavated findings in the sanctuary of Makmish ............................................................................ 117 Table 2.19: The excavated findings in Building 89 of Makmish (Stratum VIII) ....................................................... 119 Table 2.20: The excavated findings in Building 1013 of Makmish (Stratum VII) .................................................... 121 Table 2.21: The excavated findings in Area D building of Tel Ya’oz ....................................................................... 125 Table 2.22: The excavated findings in Area C building of Tel Ya’oz ....................................................................... 128 Table 3.1: The excavated findings in Building E of Al-Mina (Level III) .................................................................. 143 Table 3.2: The excavated findings in the sanctuary of Tell Sukas ............................................................................. 161 vii Table 3.3: The excavated findings in the “Ma’abed” of Amrit .................................................................................. 166 Table 3.4: The excavated findings in Shrine 2 of Sarepta ......................................................................................... 187 Table 3.5: The excavated findings in the sanctuary and favissa of Kharayeb ........................................................... 190 Table 3.6: The excavated findings in the Residency of Tell Mardikh ....................................................................... 194 Table 3.7: The excavated findings in House 4 of Tell Mardikh ................................................................................ 200 viii LIST OF PLANS Plan 2.1: Ground plan of the building of Tell es-Sa’idiyeh (Stratum III) -------------------------------------------------- 227 Plan 2.2: Ground Plan of the Iron Age fortress of Horvat Mesora ---------------------------------------------------------- 227 Plan 2.3: Ground Plan of the Iron Age fortress of Horvat Ritma ------------------------------------------------------------ 227 Plan 2.4: Ground Plan of the Iron Age fortress ‘Atar Haro’a----------------------------------------------------------------- 227 Plan 2.5: Schematic plan of Building 234 of Tel Goren (Tell el-Jurn) ----------------------------------------------------- 227 Plan 2.6: Layout of the fortress of Rujm al-Henu (W) ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 227 Plan 2.7: The complex of buildings at the western summit of the mound at Tell El-‘Umeiri--------------------------- 227 Plan 2.8: The layout of the fortress of Ed-Dreijat ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 228 Plan 2.9: Bennett’s Winged Building A of Buseirah ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 228 Plan 2.10: Bennett’s Building B of Buseirah ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 228 Plan 2.11: Area A Complex at Buseirah (Phases 1-3) ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 228 Plan 2.12: Area A Complex at Buseirah (Phase 4) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 228 Plan 2.13: Bennett’s Buildings A and B at Buseirah --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 229 Plan 2.14: Overall Plan of Area A Complex at Buseirah, showing trench numbers -------------------------------------- 229 Plan 2.15: The layout of the palace of Adad Nirari I at Assur --------------------------------------------------------------- 229 Plan 2.16: The layout of the palace of Ashurnasirpal II in Nimrud --------------------------------------------------------- 229 Plan 2.17: Plan of Area C Complex (Phase 3-4) of Buseirah ---------------------------------------------------------------- 230 Plan 2.18: Plan of Area C Complex (Phase 5) of Buseirah ------------------------------------------------------------------- 230 Plan 2.19: Overall plan of Area C Complex of Buseirah showing trench numbers -------------------------------------- 230 Plan 2.20: Overall plan of Area C Complex of Buseirah showing Square Numbers ------------------------------------- 230 Plan 2.21: The topographic map of Mizpe Yammim -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 230 Plan 2.22: Layout of the sanctuary of Mizpe Yammim ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 231 Plan 2.23: Layout of the Western Complex of Mizpe Yammim ------------------------------------------------------------- 231 ix