Algerian colonial history in French textbooks At the crossroad of nationalism and memory clashes Manon Chauveau Master thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam Thesis supervisor: prof.dr. Maria Grever 26/08/13 1 Contents Acknowledgements.................................................................................................................................3 Chapter 1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................4 1.1 Research question..........................................................................................................................7 1.2 Theoretical concepts......................................................................................................................8 1.3 Textbook research and historiography..........................................................................................15 1.4 Sources and methods...................................................................................................................19 Chapter 2 La patrie: the foundation of French democracy......................................................................22 2.1 French nationalism.......................................................................................................................22 2.2 French educational system...........................................................................................................25 2.3 France and immigration...............................................................................................................28 France and Algeria............................................................................................................................30 French Orientalism and memory clashes...........................................................................................31 Chapter 3 From nationalism to 'fait de civilization', 1970-1990..............................................................34 3.1 Quantitative outcomes and the global perspective.........................................................................34 3.2 Silence and ambiguity..................................................................................................................40 3.3 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................49 Chapter 4 From francocentrism to multi-perspectivity............................................................................51 4.1 Recognition of Algeria’s defining role in French national history.................................................51 4. 2 Multi-perspectivity and historical unraveling...............................................................................57 4.3 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................64 Chapter 5 Conclusion............................................................................................................................66 Appendixes...........................................................................................................................................70 I Researched history textbooks authors between 1950 and 2012 during internship at the Georg Eckert Institute, March 2013.........................................................................................................................70 II Representation of Algerian colonial history in French history textbooks. Presentation at the Georg Eckert Institute March 5, 2013...........................................................................................................77 Bibliography.........................................................................................................................................81 ABSTRACT..........................................................................................................................................86 2 Acknowledgements The present study came about through my participation in the Master History of Society: the Global History and International Relations program at the Erasmus Rotterdam University. My passion for the domain of history education soon led me to choose a topic with the aim to investigate the impact of education on society and vise versa. My internship at the Georg Eckert Institute only confirmed my attraction to this subject. My short stay in Braunschweig enabled me to meet and interact with many brilliant researchers who always shared with great pleasure their opinions on matters such as society, religion and conflicts in relation with history textbooks. Driven by a similar interest I then dedicated many hours of my research to the analysis of more than fifty French textbooks in order to learn and compare the way in which controversial topics were approached in French society between 1970 and 2012. Growing up and living in France until I reached the age of eighteen gave me the occasion to have firsthand experience with not only French education but also public debates regarding the growing ethnic diversity of France. Hence, I have on numerous occurrences witnessed the discrepancy between the so-called democratic foundations of France and the increase in immigration. Following school and attending highly multicultural classes left me with an uncomfortable sense of faux semblant and incompetence from both French historians and politicians. My passion for the topics of colonization/decolonization and especially Algerian colonial history highly influenced the choice of research for my Master thesis. I would like to thank everyone who helped my through the research and writing process with a special mention of my thesis supervisor Maria Grever and all the professors of the Master Program History of society. I would also like to express my gratitude to the staff of the Georg Eckert institute for welcoming me and enabling me to use not only their library but also their priceless knowledge and expertise. I am also grateful for the help of Marcus Otto and for his mentorship during my three weeks internship at the Institute. 3 Chapter 1: Introduction Historical realities are always enigmatic and, while appearing to be self-evident, are difficult to decipher; and there is perhaps none which presents these characteristics in a higher degree than Algerian reality. That is why it represents an extraordinary challenge, both for knowledge and for action. —Pierre Bourdieu ‘Acts of resistance’ (New York 1998). The main goal of my Master thesis is to study the representation of Algerian colonial history in French history textbooks between 1970 and 2012 and to investigate how and why these representations changed over time. The choice of this specific timeframe is motivated by several important factors. The beginning of the new millennium witnessed a rise of public interest in the colonial history of North Africa both in France and globally. This should be seen as one of the many consequences of the increase of popular interest in processes such as immigration or radical nationalism. Extremist political parties such as the Front national, with Jean-Marie Lepen as leader, have tried by any means to attract French citizens’ attention on matters such as security and immigration almost always relating these processes in a straightforward causal relationship. Moreover, international events such as 9/11 in the U.S added to the general fear of what was now considered as the “Muslim menace”. Terms such as integration or multiculturalism soon started to spread everywhere in the news provoking both dread and controversy.1 The study of North Africa and more particularly Algeria became in few years the most controversial and fragmented topic of French history. Public events such as the riots of October 2005 by the furious youth of the banlieues, often part of the so-called second generation migrant group, as well as the discussion of the passing of restrictive lois mémorielles on the representation of Algerian colonial history seem to show the confusion of both groups on the actual social situation of 1 See on online journals such as www.lemonde.fr or www.lefigaro.fr between 2000 and 2012. 4 France.2 One of the main examples of the political pressure that is exerted upon the academic representation of the colonial history of Algeria in history textbooks started on November 6, 1989 when the senator Paul Alduy confronted the ministry of education for what he thought is the misrepresentation of this episode with the lack of recognition for the suffering of the pieds noirs (French colons that inhabited Algeria) and the humanitarian drive of the French when conquering Algeria. It is because of such statement that the law of February 2, 2005, with article 4 asking for the recognition of the positive impact of French colonization, became visible in the French political agenda. Article 4 was an attempt to rehabilitate the French colonial ideology of the mission civilisatrice.3 In order to understand the struggles that most ethnic minorities are faced with when living in France one has to understand the importance that is given to the values of the French nation. Since the French Revolution, new goals started to form for the future of what was seen as the French territory. In order to erase the influence of the Ancient Régime - the monarchic, aristocratic, social and political system - the people of France were increasingly represented as one and indivisible and as part of a homogenous territory which found credit in its ancient Gallic heritage.4 This reformation started the process of unification of the French people with actions such as the prohibition of regional languages such as the language of the Basques.5 Moreover, the image that the new republic shared of what a true French citizen must look like did not leave any place for the spread and development of cultural or social differences. Therefore, French citizens were seen as autonomous entities who were expected to actively participate in politics by following their reason and not to their personal background.6 Although some important changes occurred since this period, these ideas are still present within the foundations of the country. As pointed out above, the ethnic and social reality of contemporary France is far from matching the ideal French conception of a homogenous people and territory. France is one of Europe’s oldest countries of immigration. Therefore, since ancient time many travelers from all 2 Pascal Blanchard et Isabelle Veyrat-Masson eds., Les guerres de mémoires. La France et son histoire. Enjeux politiques, controverses historiques, stratégies médiatiques (Paris 2008). 3 Maria Grever, 'Plurality, Narrative and the Historical Canon’, in Maria Grever and Siep Stuurman eds., Beyond the canon. History for the twenty-first century (Basingstoke 2007) 31-47, 31-32. 4 Halima Ait-Mehdi, ‘Teaching the history of colonization and decolonization in France: A shared history or to each their own?', UNESCO IBE (2012) 194. 5 Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford 1976). 6 Nicole Tutiaux-Guillon, ‘French School History Confronts the Multicultural’, in Mario Carretero et al eds., Constructing Patriotism: Teaching History and Memories in Global Worlds (Stanford 2007). 5 around the globe gathered in the territory that is nowadays called France. In modern times three important waves of immigration took place answering to the growing demands of industrial developments. From 1800 onward people from neighboring countries such as Germany, Belgium or Italy chose to immigrate to France. In the 1920s this wave increased with people from all over Europe. Finally after the Second World War people from North Africa started their journey to the French territory with the hope of finding work.7 It is also important to understand that although the modern concept of French nationhood emerged during the French Revolution, nationalism was mainly a product of war. Therefore, due to the stagnation of the demographic rate of France during the 1880s, the amount of men in the army (who were included through the obligatory military service) was considered highly insufficient when compared to Germany. The naturalization of immigrants to French citizenship enabled the increase of this amount. In order to guarantee the allegiance of newly foreign citizens to the French patrie, school and the army started the practice of strict assimilationist processes enabling the formation of a unified and strong French people with multicultural background. This heritage is still present in the educational goals of France today.8 It is clear that the republican ideal and the contemporary ethnic reality of France are highly incompatible. These two important components of France’s foundation are constantly clashing in the media but also during the creation and adjustment of crucial democratic elements such as school curriculum. The social conflict due to North African immigration in France is a controversial and complex part of my Master thesis. Yet the focus of my research is on how one of these controversies has been represented in French secondary school history textbooks: Algerian colonial history. The study of history textbooks has already a long and extensive history. These media mostly contain fragmented versions of history which are nowadays in France mostly known for their lack of neutrality. If so much importance is given to the study of textbooks it is because their use is of significance for processes such as socialization and that they play a crucial role in molding the national identity of numerous future citizens.9 Moreover, the increased multiculturalism of classrooms has now become the greatest challenges regarding the teaching of a partial and relevant history. In this view the place of the history of ethnic minorities, such as 7 Ait-Mehdi, ‘Teaching the history of colonization, 193. 8 William Brubaker,’ Immigration, citizenship and the nation-state in France and in Germany: a comparative historical analysis’, International Sociology 5 (1990) 379-407. 9 Simone Lässig, Karl Heinrich Pohl, ‘History Textbooks and Historical Scholarship in Germany’, History workshop journal 67 (2009) p.125. 6 Algerians in French classrooms, is given enormous attention and is handled with caution. Hence, it is always difficult to find the right approach when dealing with controversial historical events. The frequent changes in the contents of most textbooks are not an innocent matter. This is not only due to the progress that historians accomplished in both research and writing but also to contemporary political, economic and social processes. Therefore, as it has been pointed out above, new developments such as the voting of a law regulating the representation of historical occurrences can demand the rewriting of whole passages of history. In this view, it is interesting to notice whether the changes in the representation of Algerian colonial history in history textbooks between 1970 and 2012 can be linked to any recent alterations in French society. In this chapter I will present my research question. Next I will discuss some important theoretical notions which are necessary to understand in order to grasp the topic of my thesis. Then I will study the developments that have been made in the area of textbook research to finally introduce my sources and methods. 1.1 Research question My main research question is the following: How is colonial Algerian history represented in French history textbooks between 1970 and 2012? To what extent can we link possible changes in these representations to public debates on this history in France? I will mostly focus on history textbooks which are reaching students between the age of 14 and 15 in the last term of the French “college” (high school). I chose this specific age frame because it is during this year that students are getting acquainted with the history of imperialism and with the history of the French colonies. To be able to answer the main question I will investigate six different sub-questions: 1. What is the position of the subject History in French high schools between ca. 1970-2012? 2. What are the social and political contexts in post-colonial French society concerning migrants from former colonies, such as Algeria? 7 3. To what extent has the discipline of history influenced the approach taken in history textbooks in the research period? 4. What is the place of colonial history and Algerian colonial history in the whole contents of French textbooks in the research period? Is it part of the history of French extension or is it sometimes lacking? 5. What kind of developments can we notice in the discursive and visual representations of colonial Algerian history during the research period? 6. Can we notice any influence of the memory clashes in the 2000s (such as the riots of 2005) in the perspective taken on Algerian colonial history in French history textbooks concerning discursive and visual representations? 1.2 Theoretical concepts National identity/ National history National identity was and still is a controversial concept which is often addressed by a broad area of experts. One of the most interesting accounts on this matter was written by Benedict Anderson with the book Imagined communities. Instead of seeing nationalism as pathology or as an ideology, Anderson tries to study it as part of processes such as “kinship” or “religion”.10 This approach allows us to understand the roots of this notion and to see it as a result of the shift in time between different forms of belongingness which are necessary for the functioning of the modern state. Anderson also refutes the long-lasting idea that the nation-state and nationalism are ancient entities which can account for many events that happened in the past by regrouping them under categories such as “French history” or “English heritage”. Therefore, this trend is highly noticeable in history teaching and writing when looking at the index of textbooks with chapters such as “French imperialism” or “France in the Middle-Ages” which seem to imply that France as a nation existed for several centuries. As Anderson explains, the production of textbooks by itself creates a reality in which people can feel connected to their fellow French citizen and help in the formation of a so-called imagined community. Therefore, while learning about the history 10 Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, revised edition (London, 1991) 5. 8 of France some might feel as if, although they do not all know each other, French citizens are all sharing a common past which bound them together. In this sense we understand the crucial role that textbooks hold in the creation of a strong national identity. However, processes such as globalization and immigration have strongly redefined the identity of most individuals. Markers such as ethnicity seem to be holding more and more importance in the identity-making process of people. Faced with such threats the nation tries by any means to enhance its power and grasp over the life of people. The emphasis on important defining moments for France such as the French Revolution or the resistance against the Nazis during the Second World War is one of the main strategies of the nation to remind French citizens of their belongingness. It is around such events that one understands what it means to be French and can start building a national identity. Just like Anderson, Stefan Berger does not see nationalism as an ideology but more as narration.11 According to him, the notion of nation survives because of the strong national master narrative on which it is built upon. These narratives are often changed but always have the nation as the central character. Berger believes that these narratives are powerful because they appear to people as if naturally rooted in a distant history. He states that these narratives are far from being outdated and obsolete and that because of the fear of the development of supranational entity such as Europe they are reinforced. This statement is important for my topic since I actively research any type of trends or changes regarding the narration of the Algerians by the French. Consequently, national identity can be seen as a fairly recent attribute which thanks to strong national narration bound people to one specific territory. The concept of national identity is deeply intertwined with the notion of national history. The nineteenth and twentieth centuries witnessed the rise of more national historiographies which were mostly led by male historians and were mainly influenced by political affiliations. This resulted in the fragmentation of the so-called European historiography and in the national canonization of history. 12 However, since the 1960s with the influence of the Annales school, the tradition of national historiography started to become more and more criticized. Hence, what was now praised was a much more global approach which would represent history in its whole. Moreover, the waves of emancipation of both workers and women 11 Stefan Berger, Linas Eriksonas and Andrew Mycock eds., Narrating the Nation: Representations in History, Media and the Arts (Oxford/New York 2011) 1-16. 12 Grever and Sturman eds., Beyond the Canon, 34. 9