Algal Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: Benefits, Opportunities and Challenges Edited by Avinash Mishra Applied Phycology and Biotechnology Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute Bhavnagar (Gujarat) India Algal Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: Benefits, Opportunities and Challenges Editor: Avinash Mishra ISBN (Online): 978-981-5051-87-2 ISBN (Print): 978-981-5051-88-9 ISBN (Paperback): 978-981-5051-89-6 © 2022, Bentham Books imprint. Published by Bentham Science Publishers Pte. Ltd. Singapore. All Rights Reserved. First published in 2022. BSP-EB-PRO-9789815051872-TP-504-TC-20-PD-20221129 BENTHAM SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD. End User License Agreement (for non-institutional, personal use) This is an agreement between you and Bentham Science Publishers Ltd. Please read this License Agreement carefully before using the ebook/echapter/ejournal (“Work”). Your use of the Work constitutes your agreement to the terms and conditions set forth in this License Agreement. 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Ltd. 80 Robinson Road #02-00 Singapore 068898 Singapore Email: [email protected] BSP-EB-PRO-9789815051872-TP-504-TC-20-PD-20221129 CONTENTS FOREWORD ........................................................................................................................................... i PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................ ii SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................................. iv LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS .................................................................................................................. v CHAPTER 1 CULTIVATION OF EDIBLE ALGAE: PRESENT AND FUTURE ....................... 1 Danilo B. Largo INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 COLOR MATTERS ....................................................................................................................... 2 ALGAE AS FUNCTIONAL FOODS ........................................................................................... 2 SPECIES OF EDIBLE ALGAE AND THEIR CULTIVATION ............................................... 3 Microalgae .............................................................................................................................. 6 Spirulina ........................................................................................................................ 6 Dunaliella ...................................................................................................................... 7 Chlorella ....................................................................................................................... 8 Future Prospects for Microalgae .................................................................................. 8 Macroalgae (Seaweeds) .......................................................................................................... 9 Pyropia (formerly Porphyra) spp. ........................................................................................... 9 Saccharina spp. ....................................................................................................................... 10 Undaria pinnatifida ....................................................................................................... 11 Sargassum spp. ........................................................................................................................ 12 Cladosiphon Okamuranus ............................................................................................. 13 Eucheuma Denticulatum, Kappaphycus Alvarezii and K. striatum ...................................... 14 Caulerpa spp. ........................................................................................................................... 14 Monostroma (M. nitidum and M. latissimum) and Ulva spp. ................................................ 14 Gracilaria spp. and Gelidium spp. ........................................................................................... 16 Capsosiphon Fulvescens ............................................................................................... 18 Codium spp. ............................................................................................................................ 18 GLOBAL PROSPECT OF ALGAL UTILIZATION IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY ................ 18 THE VALUE OF ALGAE AS FUNCTIONAL FOOD ............................................................... 20 SUSTAINABLE SEAWEED INDUSTRY THROUGH INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY PROTECTION FOR NEW STRAINS OF EDIBLE SEAWEEDS ........................................... 20 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 21 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 21 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 21 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................................. 21 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 21 CHAPTER 2 CULTIVATION TECHNIQUES TO INDUCE HIGH-VALUE NUTRACEUTICALS IN MICROALGAE ........................................................................................... 29 Xuan Ji, Luke Webster, Taylor J. Wass and Peer M. Schenk INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 29 MICROALGAE AND THEIR METABOLITES ........................................................................ 30 MICROALGAE CULTIVATION TECHNIQUES ..................................................................... 32 Photobioreactor Systems ......................................................................................................... 34 Closed PBR Systems ...................................................................................................... 34 Horizontal Tube PBRs ................................................................................................... 35 Flat Panel PBRs ............................................................................................................ 35 Stirred Tank PBRs ......................................................................................................... 35 Open-Pond Cultivation Systems ............................................................................................. 36 Attached Microalgae Cultivation ............................................................................................ 36 Light ........................................................................................................................................ 37 Flashing Light ......................................................................................................................... 38 Dark Treatment ....................................................................................................................... 38 Temperature ............................................................................................................................ 38 Cold Treatment ....................................................................................................................... 39 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 39 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 40 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 40 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 40 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 40 CHAPTER 3 ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ON ALGAL FOOD QUALITY ................................... 45 K. Vasumathi, K. Sundar and M. Premalatha INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 45 BIOAVAILABILITY OF NUTRITIVE PRODUCTS ................................................................ 47 PROTEINS ...................................................................................................................................... 47 LIPIDS ............................................................................................................................................. 49 POLYSACCHARIDES .................................................................................................................. 50 VITAMINS ...................................................................................................................................... 51 FOOD SAFETY .............................................................................................................................. 53 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS ........................................................................................... 53 SPIRULINA .................................................................................................................................... 54 DUNALIELLA SALINA ................................................................................................................ 55 CHLORELLA ................................................................................................................................. 55 OTHER ALGAE ............................................................................................................................. 55 CULTIVATION CONDITIONS ................................................................................................... 56 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 57 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 57 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 57 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 57 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 57 CHAPTER 4 HABITAT AND RESOURCES OF EDIBLE SEAWEEDS ...................................... 74 Monica G. Kavale and Tejal K. Gajaria INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 74 HABITAT DIVERSITY ................................................................................................................. 75 Estuaries .................................................................................................................................. 78 Mudflats .................................................................................................................................. 79 Seagrass Meadows .................................................................................................................. 79 Lagoons ................................................................................................................................... 80 HABITAT PREFERENCES OF EDIBLE SEAWEEDS ............................................................ 80 Green Seaweeds ...................................................................................................................... 80 Brown Seaweeds ..................................................................................................................... 81 Red Seaweeds ......................................................................................................................... 81 BIOGEOGRAPHY OF EDIBLE SEAWEEDS ........................................................................... 82 METHODS OF CULTIVATION EMPLOYED FOR EDIBLE SEAWEEDS ACROSS THE WORLD ........................................................................................................................................... 82 Farming through Vegetative Propagation ............................................................................... 83 Spore/Zygote Derived Seedlings ............................................................................................ 83 Cultivation of Ulva, Monostroma and Codium ..................................................................... 84 Cultivation of Laminaria/Saccharina, Undaria, and Ecklonia ............................................... 84 Sargassum Cultivation .................................................................................................. 85 Porphyra/Pyropia/Phycocalidia Cultivation ............................................................................ 85 Land-Based Cultivation .......................................................................................................... 86 FORM OF CONSUMPTION AND OTHER CONSUMABLE PRODUCTS .......................... 86 Green Seaweeds ...................................................................................................................... 86 Brown Seaweeds ..................................................................................................................... 87 Methods of Processing of Undaria ............................................................................... 87 Red Seaweeds ......................................................................................................................... 88 FUTURE PROSPECTS ................................................................................................................. 88 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 88 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 89 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... 89 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 89 CHAPTER 5 ALGAL-BASED NUTRACEUTICALS: APPLICATION AND POTENTIAL ...... 94 Jayani Samarathunga, Isuru Wijesekara and Madhura Jayasinghe INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 95 What are Nutraceuticals? ........................................................................................................ 95 Importance of Nutraceuticals in Human Health ..................................................................... 95 ALGAL BASED NUTRACEUTICALS ....................................................................................... 96 Seaweed Polysaccharides as Nutraceuticals ........................................................................... 96 Applications ................................................................................................................... 97 Algal Proteins as Nutraceuticals ............................................................................................. 98 Applications ................................................................................................................... 98 Algal Lipids as Nutraceuticals ................................................................................................ 99 Applications ................................................................................................................... 99 Vitamins and Minerals of Algae as Nutraceuticals ................................................................. 100 Algal Pigments as a Potential Source of Nutraceuticals ......................................................... 101 ALGAL NUTRACEUTICALS IN THE GLOBAL MARKET .................................................. 101 POTENTIAL OF ALGAL NUTRACEUTICALS AS A SAFE FOOD ..................................... 102 CURRENT POTENTIAL FOR USING ALGAL-BASED NUTRACEUTICALS. ................ 103 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 104 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 104 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 104 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 105 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 105 CHAPTER 6 ALGAL BASED NUTRACEUTICALS: TRENDS AND PROSPECTS .................. 111 Antony V. Samrot, R. Emilin Renitta and S. Saigeetha INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 111 NUTRACEUTICALS FROM ALGAL SOURCE ....................................................................... 113 MICROALGAL NUTRACEUTICALS ....................................................................................... 113 Polysaccharides ....................................................................................................................... 113 Proteins ................................................................................................................................... 114 Pigments .................................................................................................................................. 114 Lipids ...................................................................................................................................... 115 Sterols ..................................................................................................................................... 115 Vitamins .................................................................................................................................. 115 MACROALGAL NUTRACEUTICALS ...................................................................................... 115 Polysaccharides ....................................................................................................................... 116 Proteins ................................................................................................................................... 116 Pigments .................................................................................................................................. 117 Lipids ...................................................................................................................................... 117 Sterols ..................................................................................................................................... 118 EXTRACTION OF ALGAL NUTRACEUTICALS ................................................................... 118 TRENDS .......................................................................................................................................... 120 NUTRACEUTICALS FROM MARINE ALGAE- HEALTH BENEFITS .............................. 121 FUTURE PROSPECTS ................................................................................................................. 122 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 123 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 123 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 123 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 123 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 123 CHAPTER 7 EXTRACTION OF MICROALGAL BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS TOWARDS FUNCTIONAL INGREDIENTS: A BIOREFINERY APPROACH WITH PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES ....................................................................................................................................... 131 Joana Assunção, Helena M. Amaro, F. Xavier Malcata and A. Catarina Guedes INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 132 ALGAL-DERIVED BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS AS FUNCTIONAL INGREDIENTS ...... 133 ALGAL-BASED PROCESS AND BIOREFINERY – SOME CONSIDERATIONS .............. 143 BIOMASS DISRUPTION AND ASSISTED EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES OF ALGAL- BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS ........................................................................................................ 147 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) .................................................................................. 152 Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE) ................................................................................. 159 Pulse-Electric Field (PEF) ...................................................................................................... 160 Supercritical-Fluid Extraction (SFE) ...................................................................................... 161 Subcritical-Water Extraction (SWE) ...................................................................................... 162 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) ...................................................................................... 163 Enzymatic-Assisted Extraction (EAE) ................................................................................... 164 FUTURE PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES ........................................................................... 165 Bioactive Compound Fractionation Process Strategy – GRAS Solvents and Re-use of Biomass ................................................................................................................................... 165 Biorefinery Safety Issues and Economic Considerations ....................................................... 166 CONCLUDING REMARKS ......................................................................................................... 168 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 168 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 168 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... 168 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 169 CHAPTER 8 BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS FROM ALGAE: POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS 184 K.R. Jayappriyan, C. Kurinjimalar, M. Kaviraj, M. Vijayakumar, R. Rajkumar and Rathinam Raja INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 184 ALGAL COMPOUNDS ................................................................................................................. 186 Lipid-Based Compounds ........................................................................................................ 186 Fatty Acids (EPA and DHA) ......................................................................................... 186 Sterols ............................................................................................................................ 188 Pigment Based Compounds .................................................................................................... 188 Phycocyanin .................................................................................................................. 188 Phycoerythrin ................................................................................................................ 189 Carotenoids ................................................................................................................... 189 Astaxanthin .................................................................................................................... 192 Fucoxanthin ................................................................................................................... 193 Canthaxanthin ............................................................................................................... 194 Carbohydrates Based Compounds .......................................................................................... 194 Fucans ........................................................................................................................... 195 Fucoidan ....................................................................................................................... 195 Laminarin Sulfate .......................................................................................................... 196 Alginate ......................................................................................................................... 197 Rhamnan Sulfate ........................................................................................................... 197 Ulvan ............................................................................................................................. 197 Agar ............................................................................................................................... 198 Carrageenan ................................................................................................................. 198 Porphyran ..................................................................................................................... 199 Mycosporine Like Amino Acids (MAAs) .............................................................................. 199 Other Secondary Metabolites .................................................................................................. 201 Phenolics ....................................................................................................................... 201 Lectins ........................................................................................................................... 202 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 202 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 203 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 203 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 203 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 203 CHAPTER 9 BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS FROM EDIBLE SEAWEEDS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 212 Anuruddhika Udayangani Rathnayake, Hee-Guk Byun and Indira Wickramasinghe INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 213 BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS PRESENT IN EDIBLE SEAWEEDS ........................................ 213 Bioactive Compounds in Macroalgae .................................................................................... 213 Carrageenans and Agarans .......................................................................................... 213 Agar ......................................................................................................................................... 215 Alginate ................................................................................................................................... 216 Laminarin ................................................................................................................................ 216 Ulvan ....................................................................................................................................... 218 Fucoidan .................................................................................................................................. 218 Bioactive Compounds in Microalgae ..................................................................................... 218 CONCLUDING REMARKS ......................................................................................................... 219 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 220 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 220 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... 220 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 220 CHAPTER 10 MICROALGAE AS A SUSTAINABLE SOURCE OF VEGAN PROTEIN AND OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS .................................................................................................................... 222 Luke J. Webster, Xuan Ji and Peer M. Schenk INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 222 VEGAN PROTEIN ......................................................................................................................... 223 Sustainability of Vegan Protein from Microalgae .................................................................. 227 OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS ........................................................................................................... 228 Sustainability of Omega-3-Rich Oil from Microalgae ........................................................... 230 CO-PRODUCTION OF VEGAN PROTEIN AND OMEGA-3 PUFAS ................................... 230 CONCLUDING REMARKS ......................................................................................................... 231 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 231