ALFARABI AGORA EDITIONS The Political Editor: Thomas L. Pangle Founding Editor: Allan Bloom Writings Alfarabi, The Political Writings: "Selected Aphorisms" and Other Texts. Translated and annotated by Charles E. Butterworth Bolotin, David. Plato's Dialogue on Friendship: An Interpretation of the "Lysis," with a New Translation. Kojeve, Alexandre. Introduction to the Reading of Hegel: Lectures on the SELECTED APHORISMS and Other Texts "Phenomenology of Spirit." Assembled by Raymond Queneau. Edited by Allan Bloom. Translated by James H. Nichols Jr. Medieval Political Philosophy: A Sourcebook. Edited by Ralph Lerner and Muhsin Mahdi. TRANSLATED AND ANNOTATED BY Plato. Gorgias. Translated by James H. Nichols Jr. Plato. Phaedrus. Translated by James H. Nichols Jr. Plato. Gorgias and Phaedrus. Translated by James H. Nichols Jr. CHARLES E. BUTTERWORTH The Roots of Political Philosophy: Ten Forgotten Socratic Dialogues. Edited by Thomas L. Pangle. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Politics and the Arts: Letter to M. D'Alembert on the Theatre. Translated by Allan Bloom. Cornell University Press ITHACA AND LONDON 2.001 Copyright © 2001 by Cornell University For Charles "Chick" Evans Jr., All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without Roland F. "Mac" McGuigan, permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address and Thomas Dutch, Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, with gratitude for their faith in New York 14850. the promise of education First published 2001 by Cornell University Press Printed in the United States of America LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Farabi. [Selections. English. 2001] Alfarabi, the political writings : Selected Aphorisms and other texts / translated and annotated by Charles E. Butterworth. p. cm.— (Agora editions) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8014-3857-8 (alk.) 1. 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Cloth printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 21 Contents Preface ix Selected Aphorisms Enumeration of the Sciences 69 Book of Religion 85 The Harmonization of the Two Opinions of the Two Sages: Plato the Divine and Aristotle 115 Glossary 169 Index 177 Preface Widely referred to as "the second teacher/' that is, second after Aristotle, Abu Nasr Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan Ibn Awzalagh al- Farabl (Alfarabi) is generally heralded as having founded political phi- losophy within the Islamic cultural tradition. Born in about 870/2561 in the village of Farab in Turkestan, he resided in Bukhara, Marv, Harran, Baghdad, and perhaps in Constantinople, as well as in Aleppo, Cairo, and finally Damascus, where he died in 950/339. The son of an army officer in the service of the Samanids, Alfarabi first studied Islamic jurisprudence and music in Bukhara, then moved to Marv, where he began to study logic with a Nestorian Christian monk, Ytihanna Ibn Haylan. While in his early twenties, Alfarabi left for Baghdad, where he continued to study logic and philosophy with Ibn Haylan. At the same time, he improved his grasp of Arabic by studying with the prominent philologist Ibn al-Sarraj and is said to have followed the courses of the famous Nestorian Christian translator and student of Aristotle, Matta Ibn Yunus. Around 905/293-910/298, Alfarabi left Baghdad for Byzantium (pos- sibly even reaching Constantinople), where he remained for about eight years, studying Greek sciences and philosophy. On his return to Baghdad, he busied himself with teaching and writing until political upheavals in 942/330 forced him to seek refuge in Damascus. Two or three years later, political turmoil there drove him to Egypt, where he stayed until return- 1. That is, 870 of the Common Era and 256 of the Anno Hejirae (the year 622 c.E., when Muhammad and his followers fled from Mecca to Medina, marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar). IX Preface Preface xi ing to Damascus in 948/337 or 949/338, a little over a year before his Yet Alfarabi seems always alert to the difficulties religion and revealed death.2 law pose for the older approach to politics. In the fifth chapter of the Enu- His writings, extraordinary in their breadth as well as in their deep meration of the Sciences, for example, he sets forth two accounts of the old learning, extend through all of the sciences and embrace every part of phi- political science. Both presuppose the validity of the traditional separa- losophy. Alfarabi's interest in mathematics is evidenced in commentaries tion between the practical and the theoretical sciences, but neither is ade- on the Elements of Euclid and Almagest of Ptolemy, as well as in several quate for the radically new situation created by the appearance of writings on the history and theory of music. Indeed, his Kitab al-Musiqa al- revealed religion. The two accounts explain in detail the actions and ways KabTr, (Large Book on Music) may well be the most significant work in Ara- of life required for sound political rule to flourish, but are utterly silent bic on that subject. He also wrote numerous commentaries on Aristotle's about opinions—especially the kind of theoretical opinions that have been logical treatises, was knowledgeable about the Stagirite's physical writ- set forth in the now dominant religion—and thus are unable, given this ings, and is credited with an extensive commentary on the Nicomachean religion's prevalence, to point to the kind of rulership needed. Nor can Ethics that is no longer extant. In addition to writing the accounts of either speak about the opinions or actions addressed by the jurisprudence Plato's and Aristotle's philosophy that form the second and third parts of and theology of revealed religion. These tasks require a political science the trilogy published as the first volume in this series of Alfarabi's politi- that both combines theoretical and practical sciences along with prudence cal writings, the Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, he composed a commen- and shows how they are to be ordered in the soul of the ruler. tary on Plato's Laws. Such a view of political science is presented in the Book of Religion. It is As the first philosopher within the tradition of Islam to explore the a political science that is a part of philosophy. Yet even as Alfarabi offers challenge to traditional philosophy presented by revealed religion, espe- this redemptive vision of political science, he suggests that religion and cially in its claims that the Creator provides for human well-being by revelation must also be put into perspective or considered anew and then means of an inspired prophet legislator, Alfarabi has come to be known as goes about explaining religion in such a manner that its theoretical and the founder of Islamic political philosophy. In the first part of the Philoso- practical subordination to philosophy becomes manifest. Alfarabi's phy of Plato and Aristotle—that is, in the Attainment of Happiness—he seeks account of this subordination makes it seem perfectly reasonable—so rea- to pinpoint the common concerns that link Islam and its revealed law sonable that the limitations thereby placed on dialectical theology and with pagan philosophy in its highest form—namely, the writings of Plato jurisprudence appear to follow necessarily from it. and Aristotle. That effort finds an echo in the Selected Aphorisms, the first To this explanation of the way Alfarabi elaborates the relationship writing presented in this volume, in two ways. First, the opening words of between the philosophy of the ancients and the new revelation, one might the treatise indicate that Alfarabi draws from what the ancients—that is, object that it relies too much on a presumption of harmony and agreement Plato and Aristotle—have to say about governing, but governing with a between Plato and Aristotle on these matters. We know, however, that the view to a particular purpose. For him, the goal is to govern cities so that two differed about many minor and not-so-minor questions. This issue is they become prosperous and the lives of their citizens are improved—this addressed in the last work presented in this volume, the highly enigmatic in the sense that they be led toward happiness. Second, the overlap Harmonization of the Two Opinions of the Two Sages, Plato the Divine and Aris- between this work and the Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, especially the totle. Here Alfarabi, desirous of putting an end to the disputes and discord Attainment of Happiness, indicated by these words is made even more among his contemporaries about the disagreement they claim to discern explicit toward the end of the Selected Aphorisms. Indeed, a long passage in between "the two eminent and distinguished sages, Plato and Aristotle," aphorism 94 paraphrases sections 11-20 of the Attainment of Happiness. sets out to show that their opinions are in agreement, to "remove doubt and suspicion from the hearts of those who look into their books," and to 2. For the preceding biographical observations, see Muhsin S. Mahdi, "Al-Farabi," in "explain the places of uncertainty and the sources of doubt in their trea- Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. C. C. Gillispie (New York: Charles Scribner, 1971), vol. tises." These goals, set forth in the opening words of the treatise, are 4, pp. 523-26; and "Al-Farabl's Imperfect State," in Journal of the American Oriental Society surely most appealing. But do they not too readily discount or ignore sim- no, no.4 (1990): 712-13. Preface Preface xiii pie facts manifest to any student of Plato and Aristotle? Precisely for that how to resolve particular textual problems. Professor Fauzi M. Najjar's reason, the reader must look again at Alfarabi's final observation as he sterling editions of Selected Aphorisms and Harmonization have proved to begins this treatise: he deems the attempt to show the agreement or har- be especially helpful, as have his initiative and assistance in translating monization between these two philosophers' teachings to be of the utmost the latter for this book. Every translator should be so fortunate to have a importance and, in addition, a most beneficial matter "to expound upon reader like Miriam Galston, who allows almost nothing to pass unques- and elucidate." Stated differently, whether such agreement exists in fact tioned, especially not infelicities of expression that admit of remedy. If or not, concern for the commonweal prompts Alfarabi to seek for a means these translations now have anything approaching literary appeal or ele- of bringing something like agreement to light. gance and some greater accuracy, it is largely due to her painstaking read- ing of the final manuscript and to her constant probing; for that precious Such are the general features of and linkages between the texts before us. gift of time and effort, my gratitude is boundless. I was also fortunate to Each has been translated anew for this volume, and each translation relies have in Thomas Pangle a series editor willing to read each translation either on a text newly edited or on the revision of an older edition. To the with great care, suggest ever so tactfully how awkward formulations extent consonant with readable English, Arabic terms have been rendered might be better phrased, and query passages whose opacity had eluded consistently by the same English word. Similarly, every effort has been me. Rima Pavalko's careful eye for details and gracious assistance with made to ensure that once an English word is used for a particular Arabic editorial tasks have been invaluable. To each of these benefactors, I term, it is subsequently used only for that term. The goal is to reproduce in express my deepest thanks and hope that this end product will seem wor- faithful and readable English the argument of these Arabic texts in a man- thy of their efforts. Finally, it is a great pleasure to acknowledge the sup- ner that captures their texture and style and also communicates the port of the Earhart Foundation. nuances and variety of Alfarabi's expression. To this end, notes sometimes point to particular problems in a passage or to the fact that considerations of style or sense have made it necessary to render an important term dif- ferently. An English-Arabic and Arabic-English glossary has been placed at the end of the volume to provide the interested reader with the possi- bility of investigating how particular words have been translated. The translations presented here have benefited from the kindly sugges- tions of many readers, especially the students in undergraduate and grad- uate seminars at the University of Maryland, Georgetown University, and Harvard University, who wrestled valiantly with the complexities of Alfarabi's thought and expression. May they and all those fellow scholars who have read these translations with such care, pondered over my attempts to render Alfarabi's teaching in something approaching conven- tional English, and helped me present it more precisely or perhaps more elegantly, find here my warmest expressions of gratitude. Special thanks are due also to five individuals, each of whom contributed massively to this project. First, as all students of Alfarabi know so well, Professor Muhsin Mahdi discovered many of the manuscripts on which these trans- lations are based and prepared the excellent critical edition of the Book of Religion. In addition, I have benefited greatly from his sound advice on Selected Aphorisms The translation This translation is based on the text of the Selected Aphorisms edited by Fauzi M. Najjar just over a quarter of a century ago.1 Najjar's edition was intended to expand upon, correct, and generally improve the edition and translation published by D. M. Dunlop a decade earlier.2 It was primarily Muhsin Mahdi's discovery in Turkey of an older and more reliable manu- script of this work that prompted the new edition. This manuscript, from the Diyarbekir Central Library (no. 1970), had not been known to Dunlop and offered better readings of key passages as well as a more complete text. In addition, Mahdi discovered another Turkish manuscript unknown to Dunlop—the Istanbul Millet Library, Feyzullah, no. 1279. Though it was not much more reliable than the two manuscripts on which Dunlop had based his work (the Chester Beatty, no. 3714; and Bodleian, Hunt., no. 307), Najjar's acquisition of copies of two other manuscripts unknown to Dunlop (the University of Teheran, Central Library, Mishkat, no. 250, and the University of Teheran, Faculty of Divinity, Ilahiyyat, no. 695) allowed him to improve considerably upon Dunlop's edition. These improve- ments appear throughout the text, but are especially evident in the new aphorisms (3,15, 23, and 40) and the additional sentences in aphorisms 6, 1. See Abu Nasr al-Farabi, Fusul Muntaza'a, (Selected Aphorisms), edited, with an intro- duction and notes, by Fauzi M. Najjar (Beirut: Dar al-Mashriq, 1971). 2. See Al-Farabi: Fusul al-Madanl, Aphorisms of the Statesman, edited with an English translation, introduction and notes, by D. M. Dunlop (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961). r 4 Alfarabi, The Political Writings Selected Aphorisms 5 8, and 26 (corresponding to Dunlop's 5, 7, and 23). Again, in aphorisms itself to seamless, fluid prose. It should come as no surprise that particu- 68-87, where Dunlop had to rely solely on the Chester Beatty source, Naj- larly when he is engaged in discussions of difficult questions, as when he is jar's richer manuscript base offered far better textual readings and clari- explaining wisdom (aph. 37), Alfarabi's Arabic prose is equally strained. fied many problems Dunlop had not been able to resolve. The extremes to be avoided in translation seem to be the excessive The numbering of the aphorisms in the present translation corre- pedantry or desire for precision that creates confusion where none exists sponds to Najjar's edition, but the section titles and other material found and the insufficient attentiveness that leads to smoothing over just those within square brackets have been added by me. Some of these divisions difficulties that one ought not remove. Though awareness of them offers are supported by marginal notations found in the Diyarbekir and Univer- no immunity, it is surely a better portent for a translation than nescience. sity of Teheran Central Library manuscripts. Still, Dunlop's erroneous division of the text into two parts (aphorisms 1-65 and 66-96) on the basis The title of the work of a marginal note in the Chester Beatty manuscript shows that such deci- sions cannot be reached on the basis of scribal marginalia alone, but must Only one of the known manuscripts—namely, the "Book of the Apho- also be consonant with the sense of the argument.3 Also of my doing is the risms of the Statesman, by Abu Nasr al-Farabi"—offers a title. It is also sentence punctuation and paragraph divisions within the aphorisms. The one of the latest and least reliable manuscripts, the Bodleian. Moreover, numbers within square brackets refer to the pages of Najjar's Arabic text. no medieval bibliographic source attributes a book with this title to With these additions, as with the notes, my primary goal has been to Alfarabi; nor does the famous nineteenth century historian of medieval make it easier for the reader to seize and follow Alfarabi's argument. Islamic and Jewish philosophy, Moritz Steinschneider, ever refer to it by The same goal guides this translation. Years of using Dunlop's trans- this name. He, like Najjar, looks back to those traditional sources as well lation with students who do not read Arabic showed that it would not be as to the way the work is identified in the first few lines of the other man- sufficient merely to insert Najjar's new aphorisms and otherwise lightly uscripts and opts for the appellation "The Selected Aphorisms"; in doing touch up his version. Rather, it had become clear that a technically rigor- so, Steinschneider departs only minutely from the other title traditionally ous rendering of the text was needed. For example, in aphorism yj, Dun- assigned the work, the one Najjar opts for—"Selected Aphorisms."4 lop renders the term al-madina al-fadila, not as "the virtuous city" (which Najjar relies principally upon the Diyarbekir manuscript to establish corresponds to the context and its discussion of virtue) but as "the ideal this title. With minor variations, the first few lines of this manuscript and city." In aphorism 2, where Alfarabi contrasts noble actions (al-af'al three of the other five manuscripts read: al-jamila) with base actions {al-af'al al-qabiha), a contrast perfectly in keep- ing with the other one he is making between virtue and vice, Dunlop Selected aphorisms that comprise the roots of many of the sayings of the translates these as "fair actions" and "ugly actions," thereby leaving the Ancients concerning that by which cities ought to be governed and made reader to wonder what Alfarabi is talking about. In keeping with this prosperous, the ways of life of their inhabitants improved, and they be led lack of rigor is Dunlop's tendency to use different English terms for the toward happiness. same Arabic terms and the same English term to translate different Ara- bic ones, a practice that deprives the reader of learning anything about The emphasis here is thus on the partial character of the treatise: it con- Alfarabi's philosophic or political vocabulary. tains selected aphorisms that encompass the foundations, principles, or To be sure, the contrary practice I have adopted sometimes obliges the grounds of several—that is, not all—of the sayings of the ancients. More- reader to pause and puzzle out certain passages. The attempt to render over, those sayings are limited to political subjects, especially ones relat- Arabic terms consistently with the same English ones does not always lend ing to rule. Only in the two Teheran manuscripts is a reading substantially different from this prefatory passage to be found. Because it places greater 3. See Muhsin Mahdi, "Review of Al-Farabi: Fusul al-Madam, Aphorisms of the States- man," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 23 (1964): 140-43. 4. See Najjar, pp. 10-13 and notes. 6 Alfarabi, The Political Writings Selected Aphorisms 7 stress upon human virtue than on political order and thereby suggests a six manuscripts, are sufficiently problematic that it is best to set them different orientation to the work, it is worth citing in full: apart. In the Selected Aphorisms, Alfarabi begins with, then develops, a comparison between the health of the soul and that of the body. That is, These are the sentences and aphorisms chosen from the science of morals somewhat abruptly, he starts his exposition by defining the health of each [and] comprise: acquiring the virtues of the human soul, avoiding its vices, and then explains how the health of the more important of the two—that moving the human being himself from his bad habits to fine habits, mak- of the soul—may be obtained and its sickness repulsed. The first word of ing firm the virtuous city, and making firm the household and the ruler- the Selected Aphorisms is simply "soul," while the last is "virtue." In the 96 ship over its inhabitants. They are all brought together in this epistle.5 aphorisms occurring between these two words, Alfarabi first enters upon a detailed examination of the soul, then provides an account and justifica- Moreover, in both these manuscripts the work is identified as an epis- tion of the well-ordered political regime that the soul needs in order to tle (risala). Such differences notwithstanding, insofar as both versions pro- attain its perfection. At no point in the treatise or epistle does he speak of vide a summary preview of the argument to come, they may well be prophecy or of the prophet or legislator. The terms are not even evoked. nothing more than attempts on the part of industrious scribes to offer He is equally silent with respect to the philosopher and mentions "philos- readers a preliminary synopsis of the work. ophy" only twice, both in the antepenultimate aphorism 94—the same In translating the term fusul (sing, fasl) as "aphorisms" here, I do no aphorism in which he mentions, for the only time, the word "revelation." more than follow in the steps of the first editor and translator—Dunlop— On the other hand, Alfarabi speaks constantly throughout these apho- just as the second editor—Najjar—and most other scholars have done. risms of the statesman {madam) and of the king. Yet Dunlop's recourse to Maimonides in order to urge that aphorisms are The "Ancients" referred to in the few lines preceding the first apho- necessarily incomplete or fall short of a fully scientific explanation seems rism are, of course, none other than Plato and Aristotle. Alfarabi calls unwarranted.6 Nor, pithy as they are, is anything to be gained by conjec- upon them in this work to identify the political order that will bring about turing that Alfarabi understands fusul to mean "aphorisms" in the sense human happiness. The individual who succeeds in understanding how a Nietzsche ascribes to the term almost a millennium later.7 The matter is political community can be well-ordered—whether this person is a states- much more straightforward: we need only note how "aphorism," derived man or a king—will do for the citizens what the physician does for indi- from the Greek aphorizein ("to mark off" or "to determine"), is aptly cap- vidual sick persons and will accomplish for the citizens who follow his tured by the Arabic fasl and understand the English term in light of its rules what the prophet accomplishes for those who follow his. Nonethe- Greek origin. Indeed, since Alfarabi at no point indicates why he calls the less, to attain such an understanding, one must first be fully acquainted divisions of this work fusul, he may mean nothing more by the term than with the soul as well as with political life. More precisely, the virtuous "sections" or some other form of textual break. Still, given the shortness political regime is the one in which the souls of all the inhabitants are as of many of the fusul, there is no good reason to call them "chapters." healthy as possible: "the one who cures souls is the statesman, and he is also called the king" (aph. 4). This is why such a patently political treatise contains two long discus- The structure of the work sions of the soul. One, very reminiscent of what is found in the Nico- The work itself consists of 96 aphorisms. The four additional and con- machean Ethics, explains all the faculties of the soul except for the tested aphorisms, found only in the most recent and least reliable of the theoretical part of the rational faculty (aphs. 6-21). The other analyzes this theoretical part as well as its companion, the practical part, by discussing the intellectual virtues (aphs. 33-56). In addition, there is an investigation 5. See Najjar, p. 23 note 2. In parentheses, Najjar adds "five chapters" (khamsat abwab) after "epistle," but the link with the rest of the note is not evident. of the sound and erroneous opinions with respect to the principles of 6. See Dunlop, p. 10. being and happiness (aphs. 68-87). These three groups of aphorisms con- 7. See Friedrich Nietzsche, Zur Genealogie der Moral (Towards a genealogy of morals) stitute a little less than two-thirds of the treatise. Void of formal structure Preface, no. 8; and also Morgenrote (Daybreak), no. 454.