Alexis de Tocqueville and Rifa'a Rafi' al-Tahtawi on the Virtues of Colonialism Responses to Empire in 19th Century French and Egyptian Thought Jeffrey Sachs Institute of Islamic Studies McGill University [email protected] [Paper prepared for CPSA Annual Conference, Montreal, QC, June 1-3, 2010] Draft copy – please do not circulate without permission Abstract: This paper is an exercise in comparative political theory. I argue that Alexis de Tocqueville and Rifa’a Badawi Rafi’ al-Tahtawi share a similar justification for empire: that it will 1) generate glory for the conquering nation, and 2) cause its inward-looking population to become more socially and politically active. Their justifications nevertheless differ, and I show that Tahtawi’s argument for the anti-democratic effects of colonialism presents a potent challenge to Tocqueville. The purpose of this paper is to examine the justifications for colonialism of Rifa’a Badawi Rafi’ al-Tahtawi (1801-73) and Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859), two contemporaries separated by language, religion, and political circumstance who nonetheless arrive at strikingly similar justifications for their countries’ colonial ventures. Though one was an Egyptian serving in the Ottoman bureaucracy and the other (among other things) a representative in the French National Assembly, Tahtawi and Tocqueville have been compared before1 – and why not? Their political and intellectual careers were animated by many of the same concerns: the relationship between political centralization and political apathy, the decline of public life, and the role of culture in the fates of civilizations. But their views on colonialism have yet to be presented side-by-side. In fact, despite his seminal role in the development of modern Arab and Islamic political thought, Tahtawi’s views on Egypt’s colonization of Sudan have yet to receive any sustained treatment in the scholarly literature. With the exception of Melvin Richter’s 1 Euben, R. L. (2006). Journeys to the Other Shore: Muslim and Western Travelers in Search of Knowledge. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 90-133. 1 path-breaking work in the 1960s and the more recent scholarship by Jennifer Pitts, neither have Tocqueville’s views on Algeria.2 Fortunately, recent years has seen a resurgence of interest in both European and Islamic colonial ideologies. In the case of the former, this was stimulated in part by the question of how prominent figures in the liberal tradition (eg. James and John Stuart Mill, Saint-Simon, Condorcet) might champion the cause of human liberty in Europe, and at the same time forcefully advocate for colonization in India, Africa, and the New World. Uday Mehta has argued that the desire for colonial conquest is “an integral and characteristic feature” of the British liberal tradition, that it practices a “strategy of exclusion” that denies liberty to those lacking the requisite social credentials.3 His argument has prompted some criticism, as many prominent British liberals – Bentham, Maine, and Spencer among them – were skeptical of British imperialism.4 Meanwhile, Sankar Muthu has pushed for a reassessment of 18th and 19th century attitudes towards empire, claiming in part that a prominent stream of Enlightenment thought saw colonialism as the negation of its values, not their greatest expression.5 The scholarship on Islamic colonial ideologies is much more limited, in large part because there are so few examples of Muslim colonialism to draw upon. The period of time during which something like colonialism could have occurred in the Middle East was relatively brief; large-scale, centralized states did not begin to form in the region until the end of the eighteenth century, by which time they were just four or five decades away from losing their political and economic independence to their European creditors.6 The only real example of colonialism in the Middle East, therefore, was Egypt’s invasion and conquest of the Sudan in 1820-21. There is bound to be some debate over whether Egypt’s rule there was, in fact, colonialism, and not just another incidence of invasion, conquest, and occupation. A number of scholars have argued in recent years that it was, and moreover that Egypt self-consciously modeled its own rule over Sudan on the British imperial example.7 Most important nineteenth century Egyptian intellectuals (including Ali Mubarak, Ya’qub Sanu’a, and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani) who discussed the matter 2 Richter, M. (1963). "Tocqueville on Algeria." The Review of Politics 25(3): 362-398; Pitts, J. (2005). A Turn to Empire: The Rise of Imperial Liberalism in Britain and France. Princeton, Princeton University Press. 3 Mehta, U. S. (1999). Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 194. 4 Bell, D. S. A. (2006). "Empire and International Relations in Victorian Political Thought." Historical Journal 49(1): 281-298. 5 Muthu, S. (2003). Enlightenment Against Empire. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press. 6 It seems appropriate here to offer a brief definition of colonialism, one that will both contribute to a more precise analysis and help explain why this comparison across cultures is justified. By colonialism, we are referring to the project in which a nation-state attempts to politically, economically, and culturally subjugate a foreign population in such a way that erects a regime of difference. 7 See Powell, E. T. (2003). A Different Shade of Colonialism: Egypt, Great Britain, and the Mastery of the Sudan. Berkeley, University of California Press; Lawson, F. H. (1992). The Social Origins of Egyptian Expansionism During the Muhammad Ali Period. New York, Columbia University Press; also Wendell, C. (1972). The Evolution of the Egyptian National Image: From its Origins to Ahmad Lutfi al-Sayyid. Berkeley, University of California Press, 164. 2 were supportive of Egypt’s role there, and they justified their support on the grounds that Egypt had a duty, as the superior civilization, to improve the political, economic, and religious conditions of the Sudanese. This sort of justification would be familiar to many European liberals, and no doubt Mehta would see in it some of the same “strategies of exclusion” he finds in John Stuart Mill. That is precisely why the contributions of Tahtawi and Tocqueville are so interesting. Unlike many of their contemporaries, both men concluded that colonialism promised little benefit for the colonized – on the contrary, that foreign rule had only worsened the situation for the Sudanese and Algerians. Yet they remained staunch supporters of their countries’ rule there, on the grounds that doing so would improve the domestic political situation. Tahtawi believed Egyptian rule over Sudan was a powerful reminder to the Egyptian people of their past greatness, and that its grand colonial venture in Africa would serve as a sort of spur toward their own, individual greatness in public life. Tocqueville argued something strikingly similar, claiming that France’s presence in Algeria was justified on the grounds that it would encourage political solidarity and engagement domestically, and promote France’s reputation and position abroad. Despite their support for colonialism, therefore, neither Tahtawi nor Tocqueville can be lumped together with Mubarak, Mill, and others who celebrated their country’s great mission civilisatrice. How could they be, when Tahtawi and Tocqueville were both so anxious about the status of their own civilizations? Far from triumphantly heralding the virtues of Egypt or France, both men were deeply anxious about their home countries, and were not entirely comfortable with the prospect of exporting their civilizations across the globe. It is this anxiety over civilization, coming at a time of great domestic turmoil and weakness, that lies beneath the surface of both men’s writings, and what sets them apart from so many of their contemporaries. This paper will begin by taking up the life and thought of Tahtawi. Since he is unlikely to be familiar to most readers, a slightly longer biography seems warranted. His philosophy of history, and the way it affirms his justifications for colonialism, will be presented. Next, it will take up Tocqueville’s justifications for French colonialism in Algeria. These two sections comprise what might be called the “historical-descriptive” portion of the paper, and together they present an original interpretation of each man’s argument. They do not, however, place the two theories into conversation with each other, nor evaluate their relative strengths and weaknesses. That will be the task of the third section of the paper, to address what Andrew March has called the “epistemic” duty of comparative political theory.8 Taking the arguments of Tocqueville and Tahtawi seriously means taking sides, and though they begin from similar premises and suggest similar solutions, the two men arrive at completely contradictory conclusions. Whereas for Tocqueville, colonialism would result in the revitalization of French democracy and liberty, Tahtawi sees it as a means toward strengthening the power of Egypt’s absolute monarch. In the third and final section of this paper, this contradiction will be confronted. By carefully unpacking each theory and laying them side-by-side, we will be 8 March, A. F. (2009). "What Is Comparative Political Theory?" The Review of Politics. 71(4): 538-39. Another good example of this is to be found in Jenco, L. K. (2007). "‘What Does Heaven Ever Say?’; A Methods-Centered Approach to Cross-Cultural Engagement." American Political Science Review 101(4): 741-755. 3 able to see how each becomes the other’s best critic – and that Tahtawi may present to Tocqueville a challenge he cannot meet. I. Rifa’a Badawi Rafi’ al-Tahtawi Rifa’a Badawi Rafi’ al-Tahtawi was born in the town of Tahta in Upper Egypt in 1801. At sixteen he entered al-Azhar University in Cairo, where he studied under Shaykh Hassan al-‘Attar, a reform-minded ‘alim who favored European sciences and was one of the first Egyptian scholars to attend Napoleon’s Institut d’Egypte.9 While at al-Azhar, Tahtawi was educated in the classical Islamic sciences, including Qur’anic and hadith studies, usul al-fiqh, philosophy, and Arabic grammar. Like al-‘Attar, he possessed a keen interest in European culture, so was pleased when he was appointed by Muhammad Ali in 1826 to serve as imam to Egypt’s first student delegation to Paris. While his official duties were limited to religious matters, Tahtawi took a keen interest in European culture and sciences, and over the next five years became fluent in the French language and familiar with some of the major figures in eighteenth century French thought, among them Voltaire, Condillac, Rousseau, and Montesquieu.10 He seems to have been particularly impressed with Rousseau and Montesquieu, the latter of whom he slyly dubbed the “European Ibn Khaldun”, a play on the Orientalist custom of calling Ibn Khaldun the “Montesquieu of Islam.”11 Upon his return to Egypt in 1831, Tahtawi entered into public service in the court of Muhammad Ali. The travelogue of his time in Paris, Takhlis al-Ibriz fi Talkhis Bariz (“The Extraction of Gold from a Distillation of Paris”) was published three years later and became immensely popular. After several false starts, Tahtawi was ordered to open a language school for the translation into Arabic of French texts (chiefly works of military, medical, and engineering techniques), though he also arranged for the translation of several works of history, philosophy, and logic.12 It was here that Tahtawi’s career truly took off, and he continuously won favor from the court for his careful translations of works that were seen, in light of Muhammad Ali’s drive to reform the country’s military and economy, absolutely essential. For the next sixteen years, his star would continue to rise, but with the death of Muhammad Ali in 1848 and his succession by his son Abbas I in 1850, Tahtawi’s fortunes changed dramatically. The new khedive (ruler) was less interested in European learning, and Tahtawi’s school was closed. Not long after, and for reasons still not fully clear, he was exiled to Sudan with the vague instruction that he should open some sort of school for the children of Egyptian officers there. He languished in Khartoum for the 9 Hourani, A. (1983). Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798-1939. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 69. The best introduction to the thought of Hassan al-‘Attar, and its influence on Tahtawi, remains Peter Gran’s The Islamic Roots of Capitalism: Egypt, 1760-1840. Austin, University of Texas Press, 1979. 10 There is no evidence to suggest he knew of or had read anything by Tocqueville. 11 Takhlis al-Ibriz fi Talkhis Bariz, (2004). London, Saqi, 293. Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) was a Tunisian-born bureaucrat and polymath. His Muqaddimah was enormously influential in Tahtawi’s time, and remains today one of the most important works of Islamic political theory. 12 Tahtawi, R. a. R. and D. L. Newman (2004). An Imam in Paris: Account of a Stay in France by an Egyptian Cleric (1826-1831). London, Saqi, 46. 4 next four years, sending home a stream of letters protesting his treatment and declaring his loyalty to Abbas. Sudan in this period was a virtual Gulag, the dumping ground for troublesome Egyptians, a place where they could be conveniently forgotten until such time as the political situation changed or they succumbed to disease. More often it was the latter, since by all accounts the mortality rate among Egyptian exiles in Sudan was astronomical.13 While in Khartoum, Tahtawi translated Fenelon’s Les Aventures de Telemaque, an author with whom he must have closely identified, since he too was forced into exile for his work’s veiled criticisms of the ruling regime.14 In 1854, Abbas was assassinated by two of his eunuchs and Tahtawi was recalled to active life. He bounced from bureau to bureau for a time, holding a series of positions all roughly similar to those he held before his exile. In addition to translating many more French texts, he also completed two major “philosophical” works of his own. In Manahij al-albab al-Misriyya fi mabahij al-abab al-asriyya (“The Roads of Egyptian Hearts in the Joys of the Contemporary Arts”), he lays out his defense of absolutist government and some of his views on contemporary politics. In Anwar tawfiq al-jalil fi akhbar Misr wa tawthiq bani Isma’il (“The Lights of the Great Success in Events about Egypt and the Strengthening of Isma’il’s Dynasty”), he tells the history of Egypt, beginning with the pharaonic period and ending with the Muslim conquest. A biography of the Prophet Muhammad was written as well, but he died before it could be published. Tahtawi was seventy-two. The loss of Arab science Tahtawi’s justifications for colonialism rest on his peculiar notion of science and its relationship with political greatness. The problem, as he saw it, can be stated simply enough: how did Egypt, a civilization that had once stood at the forefront of science, the arts, and military might, fall so far behind Europe? How did it come to be that a French expeditionary force could so easily dispatch the powerful Mamluk army, and in short order conquer (and completely reorganize) the whole of Lower Egypt?15 And by what means did Europe’s rulers and bankers acquire such control over Egypt’s economy, when for so much of its history Egypt had dominated trade in the eastern Mediterranean? In answering these questions, Tahtawi would develop a philosophy of history and science that would lead him to suggest colonialism as a solution to Egyptian decline. According to Tahtawi, Egypt’s inferiority to Europe was visible in many spheres (eg. artistically, economically, militarily) but all could be traced back to the disastrous state of Egyptian sciences and scientific culture. During the time of the Pharaohs, Egypt had been at the forefront of scientific innovation – what Tahtawi calls the non-shari ‘ilm, 13 Ibid, 53. 14 Interestingly, Tahtawi was not the only writer on colonialism whose thought was affected by Fenelon’s Telemaque. Both Diderot and Rousseau were deeply influenced by it as well, particularly by its idealized depiction of noble savagery and Classical perfection. See Muthu 2003, p. 47, and Riley, P. (2001). The Cambridge Companion to Rousseau. Cambridge; New York, Cambridge University Press, 78-93. 15 In 1798, a French force, led by Napoleon, defeated the Mamluk army at the Battle of the Pyramids. After the French forces returned to Europe in 1801, Muhammad Ali was installed by the Ottoman sultan. 5 (‘ilm = knowledge), meaning the body of knowledge separate from those pertaining to the religious, and especially legal, sciences. Traditionally, the non-shari ‘ilm has been an amalgamation of Aristotelian physics, Ptolemaic astronomy, and Galenic medicine, all wedded to the metaphysics of the Qur’an. Tahtawi claimed that ancient Egypt was the font of all non-shari ‘ilm, and that all subsequent scientific discoveries owed their origins to ancient Egyptian culture.16 Ptolemaic Alexandria, for instance, was essentially Egyptian (and not Greek) in character, and by right could lay claim to Abbasid and Fatimid sciences and natural philosophy as well. The ancient Greeks themselves had acknowledged their debt to Egypt, and hadn’t Solon, Pythagoras, and Plato all traveled there in search of illumination? In a very real sense, all subsequent European and Islamic science was still fundamentally Egyptian in nature, and belonged more to Egypt than to any other country or civilization.17 The Franks themselves had conceded as much when they told Tahtawi that “we were their teachers in all sciences and that we had an advance on them…. Is it not so that the one who comes later delves into what has been left [by his predecessor], and is guided by his directions?”18 After the Muslim armies conquered Egypt in 639, leadership in the sciences was transferred to Islam and the Abbasid high caliphate in Baghdad. While no longer the precise center, Egypt retained its pre-eminence under the Fatimid caliphate, and might indeed have continued to advance scientific learning were it not for the disastrous accident of foreign rule. It was the conquest of Egypt by the Mamluks and the rest of the Arab lands by the Turks that ended the advance of science in those regions. Tahtawi is frustratingly vague about what exactly it is about foreign rule that was so disadvantageous for the sciences, or for that matter why a foreigner like Muhammad Ali (who was born in modern-day Albania and never learned to speak or write Arabic) was not equally problematic. But with the Mamluks and Turks in power, the light of science dimmed in Egypt, and was instead taken up by the Franks who carried it forward to its present splendor. Egypt quickly fell behind, whatever grandeur it once possessed memorialized now in broken temples and toppled statues. 16 Beginning his history of Egypt with the pharaohs and not with the Muslim conquests of Egypt in 639-642 was unusual in Tahtawi’s time. Most historians of his period began their chronology with the introduction of Islam, regarding all that went before as jahiliyya (the Age of Ignorance) during which nothing of great importance occurred. Tahtawi’s decision to do otherwise reflects the growing interest among Egyptians of his day with Pharaonic culture, an interest that coincided with French excavations of ancient Egyptian temples and monuments. Tahtawi worked hard to preserve his country’s ownership of Pharaonic artifacts, and vigorously protested Muhammad Ali’s decision to present an obelisk to King Louis-Philippe. As his career in public service developed, he became a leading voice in defense of Egypt’s ownership over its antiquities, and made his case increasingly in nationalist terms. 17 Tahtawi’s attempt to link modern natural science to that of ancient Egypt – and to present each as recognizable versions of non-shari ‘ilm – was his way of responding to the critics of Muhammad Ali’s reformist policies. The khedive’s decision to import hundreds of European scholars, technocrats, and translators, and to introduce Western pedagogical methods, was deeply unpopular with most religious leaders. Tahtawi clearly hoped that by presenting European science as something familiar and fundamentally Egyptian, he could win them over and clear the path for reform. 18 Takhlis, 105. 6 “Man is his own doctor!” The rule of Muhammad Ali (despite his foreign birth) represented for Tahtawi a real opportunity for recovery and advancement. He could not, however, do it alone. It is here that Tahtawi fleshes out his history by introducing to it an element that heretofore has been strangely absent: society. If science is portrayed in Tahtawi’s writings as almost a sort of physical object that can be taken up and wielded as situations dictate, it appears at first as if it is only states and their rulers doing the wielding. Much of the focus in his history is on the importance of good rulers, who must possess the requisite virtues if their reign is to be a success. But Tahtawi’s experience in France left him convinced that sound leadership was not enough – society must also be enlisted if Egypt was to recover its ancient glory. The discovery of society and the “social problem” marks an important moment in Arab and Islamic political thought.19 When speaking of society, Tahtawi had to literally invent terms like al-hay’at al-mujtama’iyah or ijtima’ al-bashri, both of which are derived from the Arabic root al-mujtama’, which connotes both a place (meeting place, place of assembly) and a moment of encounter (gathering, assembly).20 Prior to the nineteenth century, there was no developed notion of “society” as a separate sphere of human activity in Islamic political thought. Rather, communities were more apt to be thought of in terms of religious belief, of Sunni and Shi’a, of Muslim and kafir (unbeliever). To be sure, individual communities could be broken down into smaller groups (eg. rulers, religious scholars, warriors, producers) but people qua individuals were left undefined and largely excluded from any functional role in public life.21 This began to change in the early nineteenth century as Muslim intellectuals needed to explain what, exactly, was causing them to fall so far behind Europe. Affected by the social science literature current in Europe, and shaped also by the penetration of capital markets in the Middle East and India, it became possible to think of a polity as constituted by a society of peoples, each person performing some function essential for the health of that polity. Tahtawi was writing at a time when the concept of “society” was first coming into fashion in the Middle East, and in his political philosophy, it helped to explain why good rulership alone seemed incapable of resurrecting Egypt’s fortunes. It was not a failure of leadership or the imposition of foreign rule – both had been rectified by Muhammad Ali. Rather, it was a failure of society. This point was dramatized for Tahtawi again and again during his time in France. Compared to Egyptians, he writes, the people of Paris 19 The “discovery of society” has received extensive attention in the scholarly literature. See, for instance, Mitchell, T. (1988). Colonizing Egypt. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 63-94; Mitchell, T. (2002). Rule of Experts : Egypt, Techno-politics, Modernity. Berkeley, University of California Press, 54-119. 20 Tripp, C. (2006). Islam and the Moral Economy: The Challenge of Capitalism. Cambridge; New York, Cambridge University Press, 18. 21 Israel Altman notes that Tahtawi preserves the Medieval Islamic conception of society as comprised of these various orders. He hastens to add, however, that within each order, Tahtawi encourages individuals to “strive to improve [their] economic conditions and social status.” Attention must be paid, therefore, to producers as individuals, and not just anonymous members of a larger group. See Altman, I. (1976). The Political Thought of Rifa`ah Rafi` al-Tahtawi: A Nineteenth Century Egyptian Reformer. PhD diss., 139. 7 possessed a vibrancy and energy almost manic in its potency. Parisians distinguished themselves by their inquisitive nature and intellectual sophistication.22 They had a keen interest in all manner of arts and sciences, and had established universities and academies dedicated to learning. This love of science was not limited to professional scholars (who flourish in Paris), but rather was a sentiment widely shared among all citizens. The French had “a natural propensity for the acquisition of learning and a craving for the knowledge of all things.”23 Literacy was wide spread, and no home was without its own private library of a few select volumes. Frenchmen were always moving, always dancing from one idea to the next with an intellectual and emotional dexterity Tahtawi purposefully juxtaposes with their physical agility, such that one can “see a respectable personage running down the street like a small child.”24 They were passionate to a fault and always in the throes of some great emotion, but never let anything get in the way of their commitment to their work. This drive to acquire more knowledge and complete great tasks was partly, Tahtawi writes, out of a practical desire to gain some material reward. But it also came from a place of vanity, a wish to earn “the glory ensuing from a reputation and the desire to leave a lasting memory.”25 In contrast, Egyptians were a slow, idle, and incurious people. They had little in the way of a public presence, and kept instead largely to themselves and their private lives. Few were literate, and even fewer engaged in any sort of public debate. Possessing neither vanity nor a desire for glory, they wiled away their days engrossed in petty, private affairs. Most of all, the people of Egypt did not rule themselves. They did not order their lives or shape their behavior in ways conducive to the public good. The French, for all their energy and motion, followed certain pre-defined rules and patterns. Egyptians, on the other hand, followed no rules, no patterns. What they lacked was al- siyasa al-dhatiyya, the “politics of the self” that makes man master of his own body. If a man cannot rule his own body, then he cannot serve the maslahah (public good), and his civilization will collapse. Science will wither, politics will stagnate, and the country will fall. The custom of the civilized world has been to teach children the Holy Qur’an, in the case of the countries of Islam, and in other countries their own books of religion, and then to teach them an occupation. This in itself is unobjectionable. The Islamic countries, however, have neglected to teach the rudiments of the science of sovereign government and its applications, which are a general governing power, particularly as regards the inhabitants of the villages.26 The “general governing power” Tahtawi refers to is precisely that quality that gives man mastery over himself. It is “an individual’s inspection of his actions, circumstances, words, character, and desires, and his control of them with the reins of his reason…. Man 22 Takhlis 251. 23 Ibid, 253. 24 Ibid, 174. 25 Ibid, 173. 26 Quoted in Mitchell 1988, 102. 8 is in fact his own doctor.”27 Government and politics are extended here from the affairs of state to the affairs of the self, to matters of personal hygiene, education, and diet. Problems that heretofore had been considered completely unimportant to the business of government now, to Tahtawi, ranked among its chief concerns. Moreover, the refusal of people to recognize its importance suddenly appeared to be a disturbing retreat into private life, a denial of what was the ultimate public concern. Tahtawi’s preferred solution to this problem was education reform, but education was slow. The effects of better education would not be felt for a generation at least, and even then would be uneven and incomplete. What the people needed in the meantime, he argued, was some sort of great political event, some momentous action that would remind them of their past glories and ancient grandeur. For this, he claimed the Egyptian conquest and colonization of the Sudan was uniquely suited. As a political event, it was undeniably of the highest magnitude. Moreover, by reuniting the two halves of the Nile, it established a clear link between Pharaonic Egypt and the kingdom of Muhammad Ali. What the Pharaohs had lost was now, at long last, reclaimed. The sheer power of that idea could not help but excite the imagination and stir the soul. Tahtawi had not always justified colonialism this way. In the Tahklis, he describes Muhammad Ali’s conquest of Sudan as a jihad, as a means toward unfurling the “banners of might and justice” over all the land28, and in several points in his earlier writings, he discusses the importance of civilizing Sudan.29 After the 1850s, this talk ends. The time he spent exiled in Khartoum left him convinced that the Sudanese were unfit for civilization and incapable of advancing beyond their near animal-like condition: Half of them are like beasts and the other half like stones, he wrote. They smear grease all over their hair and bodies, like one does with a camel to protect it against tick bites. They violate the shari’a, force their women into prostitution, and promote all manner of sexual deviance. They are lazy, disorganized, and naturally shiftless. Were it not for “the white Arabs” (al-bid min ‘Arab) the Sudanese would be nothing but “a blackness in a blackness in a blackness”.30 Tahtawi’s description of the Sudanese is written in the form of a qasida – a poem – that he had originally intended to send back to Egypt as proof of his dire condition. The poem was never sent, but it was later included in his Manahij al- albab, where he compares himself to “a prisoner in the jail of the Zanj”. Alone, forgotten, cut off from civilization and abandoned to the wilderness, Tahtawi’s hopelessness becomes overwhelming: “la hayata li man tunadi” (there is no hope – all is done for).31 Against such pessimism, colonialism must either collapse or find for itself a new rationale. Tahtawi found his in the politics of the self. No Egyptian, upon seeing the barbaric depths to which the Sudanese had sunk, could maintain any longer his posture of apathy and idleness. Instead, he would be seized by a desire to perform great deeds, as the newly remembered Pharaohs once did and his own country was doing now. Egypt would reclaim its position at the forefront of science, its reputation as a great power 27 Ibid, 104. 28 Tahklis, 96. 29 Altman, 93. 30 Wendell, 130-131. 31 Powell, 54. 9 secured. Best of all, this revitalization of society would be achieved without in any way threatening the security of the government. Because colonialism was an expression of state-led glorious politics, the people of Egypt could not challenge the state without rejecting that glory – and this they would not do. Tahtawi had been in France for the Revolution of 1830; he had seen first-hand how an over-active public could bring down a monarch. Colonialism provided a way of revitalizing public life that even a supporter of absolutism like Tahtawi could get behind. II. Alexis de Tocqueville Between the publications of Democracy in America and The Old Regime and the Revolution, more than sixteen years passed. During that time, Tocqueville ran for office twice, won once, and wound up representing the district of Valognes in the Chamber of Deputies. When that body was dissolved in 1848, he was elected again to its successor, the National Assembly. He even served briefly as France’s foreign minister during the short-lived Barrot administration. For all his many interests and expertise, however, his chief concern during this period was with France’s recent colonial acquisition, Algeria. Indeed, Tocqueville emerged as a leading expert on the “Algeria question”. He visited Algeria twice (1841 and 1846) and contemplated buying land there and becoming a farmer. He wrote many essays on the subject, read about half the Qur’an, and even made some inquiries into learning Arabic.32 Though he never published a book-length manuscript on the subject, French colonialism was one of the major interests of his life, and he publicly declared it the country’s “greatest affair”, one that sits “at the forefront of all the interests France has in the world.”33 The purpose of this section is to show how, despite his reputation as a defender of liberty and democracy, Tocqueville nevertheless was a forceful advocate for the conquest and colonial rule of Algeria. It will not seek to reconcile these two competing positions, but it will attempt to show how his support for colonialism came about. In the process, a novel justification for colonialism will be presented, one strikingly similar to Tahtawi’s own defense for Egyptian rule in the Sudan: namely, that the French imperial project was an expression of Great Politics, a manifestation of public virtue that would inspire the people and spur them toward some act of national greatness. A fugitive politics In the fifty years before Tocqueville’s birth, the colonial empires of France, Britain, and Spain all suffered major setbacks that undermined the ideologies that sustained them. France in 1763 and Britain in 1776 both lost some of their most valuable New World possessions, and Spain seemed poised to follow suit. The Continent had been wracked by unprecedented political turmoil and revolution, and its politicians found it increasingly difficult to justify so much expenditure for so little profit. In France, the ancien regime’s imperial holdings abroad were seen as confirmation of its illiberal rule at home, and to 32 Tocqueville, A. d. and J. Pitts (2001). Writings on Empire and Slavery. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, xii. 33 “Intervention in the Debate Over the Appropriation of Special Funding”, in Tocqueville and Pitts (2001) 122, 127. 10