ALEXANDRIA AND CAIRO: THE ―BALAD‖ OR ―TERRA NOSTRA‖ OF THE ITALIANS IN EGYPT: 1860-1956. Marzia Borsoi A Thesis Submitted to the University of North Carolina Wilmington in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts Department of History University of North Carolina at Wilmington 2010 Approved by: Advisory Committee Andrew Clark ____Michael Seidman _______Lisa Pollard______ Chair Accepted by _________________________________ Dean, Graduate School TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………...iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………………………..iv DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………………….v LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………vi INTRODUCTION AND HISTORIOGRAPHY……………...…………………………...1 CHAPTER 1: ESCAPING THE RISORGIMENTO FOR THE MODERNIZING EGYPT OF MOHAMMAD ALI, 1860-1882……………………………………….…….7 CHAPTER 2: THE ITALIAN COMMUNITY IN EGYPT: BUILDING A NATION, 1860-1956………………………………………………………………......……30 CHAPTER 3: ITALIAN JEWS IN EGYPT: A COMPLEX IDENTITY, 1860-1956…..31 CHAPTER 4: NATIONALISM IN EGYPT, FASCISM IN ITALY AND THE ISSUE OF IDENTITY, 1919-1956………………………………………….…………..86 CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………108 WORKS CITED………………………………………………………………………..110 APPENDIX……………………………………………………………………………..117 ii ABSTRACT Egypt became the second homeland of the many Italians that migrated there from the second half of the nineteenth century to the first three decades of the twentieth century because of political and economic reasons. In Egypt, the Italian community, together with the other foreign minorities, lived a privileged life protected by the capitulations laws. However, cosmopolitanism became a problem when Egyptian nationalism emerged in 1919. The rise to power of Mussolini in Italy, and the appearance of Zionism caused the gentile and Jewish Italians in Egypt to view their national identity as a problem. World War Two and the rise to power in 1956 of President Nasser put an end to the foreign communities in Egypt. The cosmopolitan Egypt Italians lived in survived only in their memories. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There are many people who have played an important role in my academic developments and made me grow not only as a student but also as a person. Anne Cline, Jonathan Babson and Richard White Skinner have been great friends and introduced me to the life in Wrightsville Beach. Tammie Grady and Catherine Johnson for helping me with the bureaucratic part of this Master. But most of all I want to thank Dr. Michael Seidman for his kind and intellectual stimulation. I always enjoy talking to him about Italy and France. Dr. Andrew Clark, who cultivated my passion for the United Nations and International Organizations. I enjoyed conversing with him about political science and Africa. Dr. David Lavere, who if it was not for him I would not be in this school, has been a loving and patient professor. He was always willing to help me and support me. He helped me out when my international status was conflicting with my ability to be a Teaching Assistant. Dr. Lavere never gave up and managed to solve all the bureaucratic problems. Moreover, he was always supporting and encouraging throughout these two years. Dr. Lisa Pollard is the person who played the major influence on me. She has been an inspiration and a person to aspire to be like. She has trained me to be a good historian and she explained in her classes how to understand the complexity of modern Middle Eastern history. Her personality and guidance made me even more passionate about this subject and the student I am today is mostly thanks to her. Finally I want to thank two people who I love had been for me invaluable in these two years and without whom I do not know what I would have done: Theresa Jackson and Timothy Bracken. They have been more than just friends, they had been and are for me a second family in North Carolina. iv DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my parents, Antonio and Emma, my sister Giovanna, my brother-in-law Andrea, and my two best friends Manuela and Vanessa. Thank you for never giving up on me and for always supporting my decisions with unconditional love. v LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Cosmopolitan Alexandria in the summer of 1931…………………………………..3 2. Lloyd Triestino……………………………………………………………………..34 3. The Venetian-style building………………………………………………………..36 4. The railroad system built by the English…………………………………………..43 5. Italian school in Alexandria promoting the Italian culture………………………...48 6. The Italian school Scuole Littorie………………………………………………….50 7. Summer 1940: Italian and German aircraft bombarding Alexandria…………….104 8. Summer 1940……………………………………………………………………..104 9. Poster for the European community in Alexandria……………………………….120 10. Urabi Pasha to John Bull: ―Bada mercante!‖ [―Beware merchant!‖]………….....121 11. Urabi Pasha to a British General: ―Caro generale.‖ [―Dear General.‖]…………..122 12. Cucina Cosmopolita [Cosmopolitan cuisine]…………………………………….123 13. L’occupazione collettiva [Collective occupation]………………………………..124 14. Una nuova scala di Giacobbe [A new Jacob’s ladder]…………………………..125 15. Maremagno politico [Political chaos]……………………………………………126 16. Giuoco sbagliato [Wrong policy]…………………………………………………127 17. L’equilibrista inglese [The British equilibrist]…………………………………...128 18. Storia contemporanea [Contemporary history]…………………………………..129 19. The first Italian-Arabic dictionary printed in Egypt by Bulacco in 1822…….…..130 20. ―With His Foot, Mussolini Is Crushing the Dove of Peace.‖…………………….132 21. ―New Axis?‖ ……………………………………………………………………..133 vi 22. Mussolini…………………………………………………………………………134 23. ―Her Guardian…‖ ………………………………………………………………..135 vii INTRODUCTION AND HISTORIOGRAPHY The Italian community in Egypt was fundamental for the political, economic and cultural development and modernization of Egypt. While usually historians focus on the role of Britain, which occupied Egypt in 1882, and of France, the contributions the Italian community provided Egypt are often forgotten. This thesis illustrates the role of the Italian community in Egypt, which was important in the creation of modern Egypt. In the first half of the nineteenth century, while Italy was going through wars of independence, many Italian Masons and members of Italian secret societies, exiled by the states of the peninsula, were welcomed by the Viceroy of Egypt, Mohammad Ali. After the unification of Italy, another wave of Italian migrants moved to Egypt and stayed there until the advent of President Nasser in 1956. In Egypt, the capitulations laws allowed foreigners to live a privileged life. Egypt was a cosmopolitan place where nationality was displayed only when convenient. Egypt was considered to be diverse, multiethnic and cosmopolitan as the United States, another place where many Italians migrated in the second half of the nineteenth century. Egypt was just warmer and closer to Italy. In Egypt any foreigner could gain profit. Foreigners benefitted from the Capitulations, which not only protected them, but also provided social and economic advantages in comparison to the local population.1 However, the prestige of the Italian community in Egypt was overshadowed by the French and by the British after 1882. British nationality became the most influential in Egypt at the expense of the Italian one. Nevertheless, after a moment of crisis, the 1 Daniel Fishman, Il chilometro d’oro: il mondo perduto degli italiani d’Egitto (Milano: Edizioni Angelo Guerini e Associati SpA, 2006), 21. Italian community regained momentum from the turn of the twentieth century until the 1930s. The relations between Egypt and the Italian community were good. Contrary to the British and French, the Italians were not perceived by the Egyptians as a colonial power. The Italians also considered Egypt a second motherland. However, the emergence of an exclusive Egyptian nationalism in 1919, put an end to Egypt‘s cosmopolitanism. Foreignness was now a problem in Egypt. Moreover, Egyptian national movements and the rise to power of Mussolini in Italy, led the Italian community to view their national identity as an issue. The Italians in Egypt could no longer consider themselves loyal both to Egypt and Italy. The situation of the Italian Jews in Egypt was even more complex. The rise of Zionism and the creation of the state of Israel, further fragmented the national identity of this group. World War Two and the rise to power in 1956 of President Nasser put an end to the foreign communities in Egypt. The Italians also had to leave what was for them a homeland and return to Italy. These Italians thought of Egypt and its people with nostalgia. The cosmopolitan Egypt they lived in survived only in their memories. 2 Figure 1. Cosmopolitan Alexandria in the summer of 1931: locals and Europeans living together in Michael Haag, Vintage Alexandria: Photographs of the City 1860-1960 (Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 2008), 32. This study traces the contribution of the Italian community in the political, economic and cultural development of Egypt from 1860 to 1956. A contribution that has been underestimated and neglected by historians who focus mostly, if not only, on British and French involvement in Egypt‘s modernization. Even though the historiography of who contributed to Egypt‘s development in the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, favors the British and the French, however history tells us that it is the Italians community that played a crucial role in the modernization of Egypt. The contribution this thesis gives is to grant the Italian community in Egypt the merit they deserve in playing a central role in the building of modern Egypt, free of any political and colonial agenda until the 1930s.2 As for the time limits chosen for this study, the starting point of 1850 requires explanation. This year was chosen as it coincides with the first major waves Italian 2 Antonio Monti, Gli italiani ed il canale di Suez; lettere inedite di P. Paleocapa, L.Torelli, E. Gioja e altri (Roma: Regio Istituo per la Storia del Risorgimento Italiano, 1937), viii. 3