Alexandra Littaye: Baking Memories for the Future Baking Bread Memories for the Future Alexandra Littaye University of Oxford1 The smell of good bread baking, like the sound of lightly flowing water, is indescribable in its evocation of innocence and delight...2 Introduction Bread, the staple of life, is ubiquitous in UK households. Ninety-nine percent of households in the UK buy bread, and the UK eats the equivalent of over nine million large loaves of bread every day.3 Through its widespread consumption, bread offers a platform from which to understand the erosion of artisanal (baking) skills and the ways that food networks have emerged to counter this loss. This article centres in particular on the discourses and narratives of the “real bread” network of bread-bakers (some professional, others infrequent bakers) who have learned how to bake “real bread” through a food movement called Bread Matters. Bread Matters is a pioneering British food movement and business based in Scotland that supports the creation of community-owned bakeries in the UK and offers courses that teach how to bake “real bread”, in contradistinction to bread produced through mechanised processes. Bread Matters celebrates artisanal, hand-made baking with organic and local ingredients. It claims that a Bread Revolution is under way in the UK,4 leading individuals to bake and set-up artisan bakeries, thwarting the corporate and highly mechanised bread industry – a food movement still understudied and which stands as an example of grassroots efforts in the UK to counter the mechanization of the food industry. The overwhelmingly mechanical production of bread in the UK can be traced to the development in 1961 of the Chorleywood Bread Process, which combines vegetable fat, yeast, and improvers at high speeds so that a loaf can be made in less than three and a half hours. This highly mechanised and chemical process is now used to produce eighty percent of bread baked in the UK,5 because it reduces the cost of production and more than doubles a loaf’s shelf-life.6 The bread industry in the UK is now heavily dependent on modern technology, and less reliant on individual skill and craft, or the savoir-faire of bread-baking. It is estimated that the number of small-scale artisanal bakeries in the UK fell from around 18,000 to fewer than 3500 between the 1950s and the 2000s.7 Ninety-seven percent of bread in the UK is made in factories or supermarkets, reflecting the ‘growth of an ideology of neo-liberal markets and the rise of a 1 Alexandra Littaye is a doctoral student in the School of Geography and the Environment at the University of Oxford. She investigates the process of heritagization of food products in Scotland and in Mexico through studying small-scale producers and the international organisation Slow Food. She used to be a philosophy lecturer in the United Arab Emirates and has competed as an amateur boxer for several years. 2 F.J.K. Fisher, The Art of Eating (New York: MacMillan, 1954). 3 ‘History of the Bread Industry’, Federation of Bakers, accessed 23 August 2013, http://www.bakersfederation.org.uk/the-bread-industry/about-the-bread-industry.html. 4 Andrew Whitley, the founder of Bread Matters, co-founded the Real Bread Campaign in the UK in 2008. 5 ‘History of the Bread Industry’. 6 Ibid. 7 ‘Press release: From Brick Lane to Bread Street’, Sustain, accessed 21 August 2014, http://www.sustainweb.org/pdf/25_08_04.pdf. 5 Journal of History and Cultures (5) 2015 ISSN 2051-221X concentration in corporate control of agri-food’.8 The erosion of artisanal, hand-made bread typifies the wider mechanisation, systematisation, and standardisation of the food system in the UK. “Real bread” is a concept constructed by Bread Matters in response to such industrialised production methods sketched above and the resultant perceived lack of authenticity in the modern British food system. As this article explores, the “real” nature of “real bread” is linked to representations of how bread should be baked that stand in stark contrast to the Chorleywood Bread Process. In this case, the “real” is based on notions of the correct use of time, celebrated in Bread Matters’ narrative that evokes an idealised and fixed past for bakers and the craft of baking. The impetus for remembering “real bread” – understood as the desire to bake as well as the act of eating – is rooted in attempts at reviving both artisanal foodstuffs and the skills intrinsically linked to their survival. The “real bread” network is thus a platform through which to grasp how baking bread influences its consumption and vice-versa, enabling us to break down the all-too-familiar dichotomy between consumption and production. In relation to food, what we remember is necessarily and intrinsically linked to how we remember. Within the discourse surrounding “real bread”, it is assumed that those who bake and consume it regain a sense of reality and authenticity lacking from the food system they would otherwise inhabit. As such, the movement for the expansion of “real bread” is mainly focused on food production, which has had little traction as a potential site for the analysis of reflexive conduct. In investigating Bread Matters’ formulation of “real bread”, this article seeks to bridge two academic fields within food studies: the conceptualisation of foods from the past as forms of cultural capital with the potential to alleviate broader social and economical concerns in local rural areas;9 and heritage or traditional foods as a response to feelings of alienation typical of post-Fordist, Western societies, ‘divorced from their origins through urbanization and population migration, such senses of pride and place have to be created’.10 Through discourse analysis, the role of food networks in shaping culinary pasts and heritage is underlined. The following pages investigate how food networks revive eroding culinary skills through the structuring of pastness as ‘a vague “then”, a “time before”’.11 They consider how the “reality” of bread is constructed according to different temporalities and representations of the past and, moreover, what consequently constitutes “unreal” bread (the majority of bread eaten in the UK) Ultimately, this article aims to efface the binary oppositions of ‘broad-brushed contrasts between “now” and “then”, “past” and “present”’12 upon which these food networks base their legitimacy. Bread Matters Bread Matters is a business that offers classes on how to prepare and bake handmade goods (though it does not sell bread) and also helps community-shared bakeries to establish themselves within or outside of the UK, through paid or free consultancy. Its recipes and larger philosophy are based on sourdough, a type of bread that necessitates a “slow” fermentation. It heavily encourages 8 K. Morgan, T. Marden and J. Murdoch, Worlds of Food: Place, Power, and Provenance in the Food Chain (Oxford, New York: Oxford UP, 2006), p. 55. 9 G. Brunori and A. Rossi, ‘Synergy and Coherence Through Collective Action: Some Insights from Wine Routes in Tuscany’, Sociologia ruralis, 40 (2000), pp. 409-423. 10 A.J McIntosh and C.P. Richard, ‘Affirming Authenticity’, Annals of Tourism Research, 26.3 (1999), pp. 589- 612, at p. 590. 11 P.J. Fowler, The Past in Contemporary Society: Then, Now (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 6. 12 R. Samuel, Theatres of Memory (London: Verso, 1994), p. 6. 6 Alexandra Littaye: Baking Memories for the Future baking with “heritage” and organic cereals such as einkorn (discussed below) with the exclusion of any artificial additives. Indeed, “real bread” is ‘defined as being made without additives, fermented for several hours and always touched by human hands’.13 Furthermore, because of its production methods and the raw ingredients, “real bread” is ‘better for you, better for your community, better for the planet’.14 Andrew Whitley, the founder of Bread Matters, also co-founded the Real Bread Campaign (RBC) in 2008, through which he aimed to spread the philosophy of “real bread” throughout the UK. The RBC website announces their aim as being: to increase the enjoyment, production and consumption of bread made with natural ingredients, appropriate fermentation and no adulterants…we want to see grain and bread production at the heart of a sustainable ecological food system…We campaign for proper labelling so at least we know what we’re eating. We want all the additives – declared and hidden – out of bread. We are helping to organise scientific research into why fast-made bread leaves so many people bloated. We work with other organisations to make real bread available in schools, hospitals and other public institutions.15 The organisation constructs its notion of “real bread” in contrast to the ills it perceives in today’s dysfunctional food system and in relation to bread from the past: In the pre-industrial era, time was an essential ingredient in bread- making, even after the processes of fermentation were well understood.16 The notion that in the past, baking was ‘well understood’, stands as an ideal against which to criticise the bread industry in the UK today, with its heavy machinery and lack of expertise and manual skill: Without time and watchfulness, there would be no bread as we know it...Before the advent of commercial yeasts, bakers had to make their own leavening mixture.17 Tacit knowledge as well as the use of time necessary to baking are seen to be replaced by machines and chemistry inherent in the modernisation of the bread industry. Indeed, time is a key element in the production of “real bread” made without preservatives or additives and whose dough thus rises solely through the action of yeast. “Real bread” is intrinsically slowly made bread. Time – and its 13 ‘Real Bread Campaign’, Bread Matters, accessed 13 February 2013, http://www.breadmatters.com/index.php?route=information/information&information_id=15. 14 Ibid. 15 Ibid. 16 ‘Time and Bread’, Bread Matters, accessed 13 February 2013, http://breadmatters.com/index.php?route=information/information&information_id=19. 17 Ibid. 7 Journal of History and Cultures (5) 2015 ISSN 2051-221X slow unfolding – is the essence of the “reality” of “real bread”. If we rob bread of its time, it fails to be the “staple of life”, since: …it was, above all, time which caused that first left-over piece of flour-and-water dough to surprise its maker by rising a little after a few hours of benign neglect...Without time and watchfulness, there would be no bread as we know it...Without time to ferment the dough and allow the microorganisms to interact, bread not only lacks flavour but may not be the staff of life we fondly imagine.18 The organisation deplores the nominal use of time deployed in the global food system, both at a consumption and production level. It takes a vocal stance against fast food culture by praising home baking: For the British baking industry in the past fifty or so years, a more serious race has been on: to make mass-produced bread as quickly as possible in the interests of profit and low prices. Most big plants moved to the ‘no-time dough’, in which a combination of high-speed mixing and chemical additives is substituted for traditional fermentation. No-time dough: the very antithesis of leavened bread as it first emerged many thousands of years ago.19 The additives (enzymes and chemicals) that reduce the baking time in the Chorleywood Bread Process are perceived as unwanted adulterations, and inhibit bread from qualifying as “real” because they replace traditional baking production. In other words, “real bread” is inherently made from “real” baking methods where time is respected. Indeed, ‘modern distribution systems, dedicated to provide multiple retailers with maximum freshness, interrupt the rhythm of time necessary to real bread’.20 According to Bread Matters, the bread industry has habituated us to a homogenous flavour of mass-produced bread and, more perniciously, to the idea of perpetual freshness. The bread industry has limited our capacity to identify fresh bread by offering loaves with preservatives: [T]he trouble is that if absolute freshness (even the ersatz freshness of a ‘baked-off’ loaf) becomes our minimum standard, we progressively rob ourselves of the benchmark by which the true delight of freshness can be judged.21 The modern imperative for long-lasting freshness requires that freshness is a stable state available in processed bread: our experience of bread is, as Whitley labels it, one of ‘absolute’ freshness. The mistreatment of time robs bread of its “reality”. Time cannot punctuate the various stages of the evolution of the loaf – fresh or stale. Industrial bread limits our experience of food since bread should be allowed to ‘grow old with dignity’ so that we may ‘use it in different ways, dunking it in 18 Ibid. 19 Ibid. 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid. 8 Alexandra Littaye: Baking Memories for the Future soup, toasting it, covering it trencher-style with succulent stews. Even when quite stale it still delights us, in summer pudding, croûtons or kvass’.22 The list of recipes entails a cornucopia intrinsically linked to “real bread” which, by its very transitory nature, enables the organisation to weave ‘alternative temporalities into the present’23 as well as to refer to an idyllic past ‘when bread was a vital source of sustenance, it was usually so hard won that throwing it away was a sin’.24 By referring loosely to “the past”, Bread Matters’ discourse is a ‘mixing [of] pastness and presentness’25 that presents itself as a template for living in the now.26 Foodstuffs gain meaning through their association with a past that is either invented or re-enacted. As Visser points out, the food industry has capitalised on the growing desire for authentic, artisanal, or traditional foods. Indeed, “real bread” typifies: Western societies, in which political and cultural processes are generally mediated to the consumer by professionals, particularly great reliance is similarly placed in the interpretation of authenticity to the consumer by professionals (Walsh 1992)27…what is and is not authentic is largely the consequence of replicated interpretations.28 The organisation’s discourse equally embraces biblical connotations, claiming ‘it is no surprise that the language of bread finds echoes in religious metaphor. From the germination of the good seed to symbolic identification with the body of Christ, bread speaks to us of becoming, of transformation’.29 The association of “real bread” with the body of Christ confers a sacred aspect on food that, by association, suggests bread that fails to be “real” – or those who fail to eat “real” bread – are sinful. The notion of “real bread” is thus couched in a rhetoric that invites an association between good foods and good bakers/eaters, whereas unreal processed bread is linked to bad foods and evil bakers/eaters. Bread Matters’ quest for the “authentic” or the “real” epitomises a shift in the ideals pursued by “foodies” in the past decade.30 Instead of seeking authenticity in foreign cuisine (the “other outward”) they are reaching back into our culinary past to guide them towards a “reality” that they feel is lacking from our modern food. Baking and eating “real bread” are acts of authenticity that are expressed as ‘identity, autonomy, individuality, self-development, and self- 22 Ibid. 23 K. Verdery, Political Lives and Dead Bodies. Reburial and Postsocialist Change (New York: Columbia UP, 1999), p. 115. 24 ‘Time and Bread’. 25 McIntosh and Richard, ‘Affirming Authenticity’, pp. 589-612, at p. 590. 26 Fowler, The Past in Contemporary Society. 27 K. Walsh, The Representation of the Past: Museums and Heritage in the Postmodern World (London: Routledge, 1992), cited in McIntosh and Richard, ‘Affirming Authenticity’, p. 590. 28 McIntosh and Richard, ‘Affirming Authenticity’, p. 590. 29 ‘Time and Bread’. 30 U. Hannerz, ‘Reflections on Varieties of Culturespeak’, European Journal of Cultural Studies, 2 (1999), pp. 393-407. 9 Journal of History and Cultures (5) 2015 ISSN 2051-221X realization’.31 It is the affirmation of identity through looking back, as a memory but with the pain removed.32 The capacity of the past to confer “reality” on food is typified in the interest in heritage seeds. One of the key projects for Bread Matters is “Scotland, the Bread”, which aims to ‘build a local grain economy’ by helping to ‘re-establish a Scottish flour and bread supply that is healthy, equitable, locally-controlled and sustainable’.33 The project attempts to revive the biodiversity of grains ‘from the past’ in Scotland and in the UK more broadly, whereby, at present: little, if any, of this wheat was used directly by local breadmakers. As with other commodity foods, the part of the supply that isn’t fed to animals or used to make biofuels is bought by large milling conglomerates or aggregated by traders. Its identity is submerged and its price is distorted by speculators. Worse, the kind of grain grown is determined by the presumed needs of intensive farming and industrial bread production. To build health and food sovereignty requires better grains, less intensive processing and more connection between producers and bread eaters.34 “Scotland, the Bread” started in March 2013 by planting small samples of 19th century Scottish wheat on four organic farms. The aim of the project was to start researching new crosses, mixtures, or landraces. Bread Matters claims that ‘the growing interest in older grains (e.g. spelt, emmer, einkorn) and “heritage” varieties mirrors significant citizen dissatisfaction with industrial wheat and bread’.35 Through this project, Bread Matters promotes nostalgia for a Lost Eden36 that responds to desires for a “reality” rooted in the past. The organisation’s discourse is couched in terms of a nostalgia rooted in memories of Gemeinschaft37 (i.e. in terms of ideals rather than in terms of regular transgressions of these ideals). The appeal to an ‘armchair nostalgia’38 is symptomatic of late capitalist consumerism whereby the ‘merchandiser supplies the lubrication of nostalgia’ and the consumer ‘need only bring the faculty of nostalgia to an image that will supply the memory of a loss he or she has never suffered’.39 In this sense, both Bread Matters and “real bread” bakers engage 31 M. Berman, The Politics of Authenticity (London: Allen & Unwin, 1970), cited in McIntosh and Richard, ‘Affirming Authenticity’, p. 590. 32 D. Lowenthal, The Past is a Foreign Country (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1985), cited in McIntosh and Richard, ‘Affirming Authenticity’, p. 590. 33 ‘Time and Bread’. 34 Ibid. 35 Ibid. 36 D. Sutton, Remembrance of Repasts: An Anthropology of Food and Memory (London: Berg, 2001). 37 Gemeinschaft is a category coined by the German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies that indicates social relations characterized by intimacy, trust and common values, and through which individuals share memories of community. 38 A. Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: U. of Minneapolis P, 1996), p. 78. 39 Ibid., p. 78. 10 Alexandra Littaye: Baking Memories for the Future with a commodification of ‘pastness’, which underlines ‘needs for identity, and the finding of the true self through the appropriation of pastness’.40 Bread Matters, Slow Food and Global Counter-Movements Bread Matters’ philosophy echoes a wider global counter-movement against the increasing “McDonaldization” of today’s food system. The study of Bread Matters reflects a wider shift in academic discourse coined the “cultural turn”41 in the food system’s ‘“turn” to quality’.42 Bread Matters epitomises various alternative movements characteristic of Post-Fordist43 economies that have been spurred by demands for local, organic, fresh, artisanal, or traditional foods.44 Much of the recent academic literature on “alternative” foods and networks has been dedicated to ethical eating45 and complementary trends such as organic food, Fair Trade, or vegetarianism.46 Some believe efforts for more reflexive consumption patterns represent a paradigm shift away from an industrial food system.47 Others, meanwhile, consider these patterns simply as the reverse side of mass food production.48 Such counter-movements are typified by Slow Food: ‘a global, grassroots organization with supporters in 150 countries around the world who are linking the pleasure of good food with a commitment to their community and the environment’.49 The Slow Food movement emphasises the importance of maintaining the knowledge and taste of “real”, “slow”, or “forgotten” foods and the skills necessary for the preservation of culinary tradition. Bread Matters is one of the local activities affiliated to Slow Food,50 and during Slow Food’s 2012 Terra Madre event, Bread Matters held a stand promoting the philosophy of “real bread”.51 Both Bread Matters and Slow Food have taken a stance against the conventional food system, symptomatic of how 'things are speeding up and 40 McIntosh and Richard, ‘Affirming Authenticity’, p. 590. 41 See N. Thrift, ‘Capitalisms Cultural Turn’, in L. Ray and A. Sayer (eds.), Culture and Economy After the Cultural Turn (London: Sage Publications, 1999), pp. 135-61. 42 D. Goodman, ‘The Quality ‘Turn’ and Alternative Food Practices: Reflections and Agenda’, Journal of Rural Studies, 19 (2003), pp. 1-7, at p. 1. 43 Understood as the shift from an economy based on mass production of homogenous goods to one distinguished by flexible specialization. 44 D. Harvey, ‘Flexible Accumulation through Urbanization: Reflections on “Post-Modernism” in the American City’, Antipode, 19 (1987), pp. 260-286. 45 D. Bell and G. Valentine, Consuming Geographies: We Are Where We Eat (London: Routledge, 1997). 46 M. Miele and J. Murdoch, ‘Fast Food/Slow Food: Differentiating and Standardising Cultures of Food’, in R. Almas, and G. Lawrence (eds.), Globalisation, Localisation and Sustainable Livelihoods (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000), pp. 25-41. 47 E. Schossler, Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the American Meal (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 2001). 48 J. Guthman, ‘Fast Food/Organic Food: Reflexive Tastes and the Making of “Yuppie Chow”’, Social and Cultural Geography, 4 (2003), pp. 45-58. 49 ‘The UK Ark of Taste & Chef Alliance Programmes,’ Slow Food UK, accessed 8 July 2014, http://www.slowfood.org.uk/ark-info/forgotten-foods/. 50 Bread Matters is a supporter of Slow Food UK in that they ‘share and want to support the Slow Food cause by engaging with *their+ network to achieve positive change in the food system’ (Slow Food UK, ‘The UK Ark of Taste & Chef Alliance Programmes’). 51 ‘Terra Madre: World Meeting of Food Communities, An Idea’ was co-organised with the Salone del Gusto for the first time in Turin in 2012. It is a biannual event, which aims to link ‘destiny communities’ (i.e. farmers from around the world as well as potential global food distribution networks). 11 Journal of History and Cultures (5) 2015 ISSN 2051-221X spreading out'52 by either identifying the foods that need saving or encouraging the enskillment necessary to their survival. Slow Food’s rhetoric provides a global framework to Bread Matters’ discourse. The Ark of Taste (Ark) is one of Slow Food’s strategies in support of small-scale producers: an online list or ‘compendium that proposed the documentation of disappearing agricultural and food products on a global scale’.53 Slow Food has thus evolved into a global ‘cultural producer’54 that orchestrates and defines which foods qualify as ‘threatened with extinction’55 and which do not. Through the Ark, Slow Food determines which foods need to be remembered. Luciana Castellina aptly conveys the impetus of the Ark: ‘there is a desperately serious genocide of taste material culture...food is what gives meaning to human existence and taste is something that gives meaning.56 The discourse of the Ark thus introduces paradoxical appreciations for time: we must take our time eating and preparing Ark products yet we must simultaneously hurry in doing so, or they will become extinct. As Slow Food UK proclaims on its website: ‘eat it or lose it!’. In upholding a discourse of urgency, simultaneously a discourse of nostalgia for ‘disappearing foods’ and ‘forgotten flavours’,57 Slow Food legitimises the Ark’s discriminating criteria, which mirrors Bread Matters’ process of discriminating between “real” and “unreal” bread. One of the foodstuffs listed by the Ark of Taste UK is einkorn, a heritage grain also endorsed by Bread Matters. Einkorn is the oldest type of wheat, but with the majority of UK bread being produced from one strain of (engineered) wheat, einkorn disappeared from England 5,600 years ago until, in 2008, ‘Doves Farm on the Wiltshire/Berkshire border began a collaborative project with a small group of organic farmers to reinstate its production.’58 They are currently conserving einkorn in situ as well as other ‘historical series of varieties’,59 focusing on the common bread wheat grown in Britain since Neolithic times. Einkorn seeds thus stand as ‘witnesses of the past’60 whose very reintroduction underlines the interrupted agricultural heritage within the UK.61 In other words, the constancy of “real bread’s” tradition and heritage, implicitly assumed in Bread Matters’ discourse, is an invention.62 This invention obscures and facilitates the organisation’s role in rediscovering ‘a sense of place and of the past [that] is conveyed formally rather than organically’.63 52 D. Massey, Space, Place and Gender (Cambridge: Polity, 1994), p. 146. 53 A. Leitch, ‘Gastronomic Revolutionaries: Slow Food and the Politics of “Virtuous Globalization’’, in D. Inglis and D. Gimlin (eds.), The Globalization of Food (New York: Berg P, 2009), pp. 45-64, at p. 53. 54 K.I. MacDonald, ‘The Morality of Cheese: A Paradox of Defensive Localism in a Transnational Cultural Economy’, Geoforum, 44 (2013), pp. 93-102, at p. 97. 55 B. Pietrykowski, ‘You Are What You Eat: The Social Economy of the Slow Food Movement’, Review of Social Economy, 62.3 (2004), pp. 307–321, at p. 315. 56 Cited in an interview in C. Petrini, Slow Food: Collected Thoughts on Taste, Tradition, and the Honest Pleasures of Food (White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2001), p. 32. 57 ‘The UK Ark of Taste & Chef Alliance Programmes’. 58 Ibid. 59 Ibid. 60 J. Barrau, ‘Witnesses of the Past: Notes on Some Food Plants of Oceania’, Ethnology, 4.3 (1965), pp. 282-294, p. 282. 61 Sutton, Remembrance of Repasts. 62 E. Hobsbawm, ‘Introduction: Inventing Traditions’, in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1983), pp. 1-14. 63 McIntosh and Richard, ‘Affirming Authenticity’, p. 590. 12 Alexandra Littaye: Baking Memories for the Future ‘With its explicitly biblical imagery of deluge and salvation’,64 Bread Matters’ and the Ark’s shared discourse with regard to grain promotes, in Kenneth MacDonald’s words, an ‘aesthetic of redemption’65 enmeshed with moral undertones and nostalgia. Slow Food, similarly, ‘promises not only to save our conscience but to bring the world back from the edge of alimentary apocalypse’.66 MacDonald argues that Slow Food portrays eating Ark products as an act of ‘moral salvation’,67 surreptitiously introducing an element of morality into the experience of eating (intrinsically linked to remembering “forgotten flavours”). This rhetoric of redemption is necessarily coupled to the naturalistic discourse of food: we need to save nature. In other words, Slow Food’s discourse is one whereby we have a moral obligation to save nature (and its forgotten flavours) by eating it. Andrea Nightingale, meanwhile, believes Slow Food's naturalistic discourse is an unexamined and pre-given category whereby the appeal to what is “natural” exempts its followers’ actions from political and moral scrutiny.68 To remember, produce, or eat forgotten flavours – most notably “real bread” – is an act, which resonates throughout Bread Matters and Slow Food’s rhetoric as being endowed with morality. “Real bread” needs time to be baked and consumed, yet there is little time to lose in baking or eating it if we are to save our world and ourselves. Enskillment Time is not only essential to the production of “real bread”; it is also fundamental to the enskillment of its bakers. Slow Food and Bread Matters identify the disappearance of artisanal foods with the erosion of savoir-faire and the loss of ‘food memories’69 – exemplified by distorted notions of freshness in bread. Nadia Seremetakis believes that Western cultures are experiencing a ‘reorganization of public memory’,70 since ‘*s]ensory premises, memories and histories’ linked to food are being erased in ‘entire regional cultures’.71 The loss of memories of food is intrinsically linked to the loss of craft in food production. Duruz makes a link between time spent cooking and the loss of culinary skills: Although the ‘time-poor’ Generation X has become the technology- rich one (the development of the microwave chip enabling easy access to both food and entertainment), at the same time it is this generation that displays a definite ‘lack’ in the everyday skills of food preparation.72 64 Leitch, ‘Gastronomic Revolutionaries’, p. 416. 65 MacDonald, ‘The Morality of Cheese’, pp. 98. 66 H. Paxson, 'Slow Food in a Fat Society: Satisfying Ethical Appetites’, Gastronomica, 5 (2005), pp. 14-18, at p. 17. 67 MacDonald, ‘The Morality of Cheese’, pp. 93. 68 A.J. Nightingale, ‘Can Social Theory Adequately Address Nature-Society Issues? Do Political Ecology and Science Studies in Geography Incorporate Ecological Change?’, online papers archived by the Institute of Geography, School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, 2006, p. 6, accessed 7 July 2014, https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/1842/1437/1/anightingale004.pdf. 69 Sutton, Remembrance of Repasts. 70 C.N. Seremetakis, ‘The Memory of the Senses’, in C.N. Seremetakis (ed.), The Senses Still: Perception and Memory as Material Culture in Modernity (Boulder: Westview P, 2006), pp. 23-43, at p, 3. 71 Ibid., p. 3. 72 J. Duruz, ‘Home Cooking, Nostalgia, and the Purchase of Tradition’, Traditional Dwellings and Settlements 13 Journal of History and Cultures (5) 2015 ISSN 2051-221X The speeding up of the industrial bread production and the decline of ‘everyday skills of food preparation’ mean that ‘cooking seems to be increasingly socially disembedded if not disembodied’.73 By offering courses teaching “real bread” baking, Bread Matters strives to redress this memory loss by enskilling people with, effectively, the means to bake “reality” into bread. As David Sutton reminds us, any skill involved in craftsmanship necessitates a context in which we can exercise judgment as well as adjust our expertise to each task at hand.74 It depends on the dual process of enculturation and enskillment whereby taste and skills are learned, mobilized, and repeatedly trained.75Our ‘enculturation’ or ‘education of attention’76 demands that our senses be engaged in our apprenticeship with and within our environment: our whole person (mind/body) is learning a new skill. Baking becomes a simpler, non-mechanised tool that extends the ‘whole person *into the environment+ and draws power from this’.77 “Real bread” demands time and apprenticeship: the foundation for embodied memories (i.e. skills). It necessitates an understanding of our environment and the objects that we seek to affect as ‘the world *that+ is its own best model’.78 To understand how to bake “real bread”, we need to enskill ourselves (i.e. absorb memories of know-how). The enculturation and enskillment of baking is illustrated in Bread Matters’ lessons in preparing a sourdough. One of the methods taught during Bread Matters’ “Fundamental” course – a two day course tailored to beginner bakers – is that of “airing” the dough: kneading it in the air (as opposed to on the table) to stretch the gluten bonds of the dough until they are deemed fit for baking. Each sourdough preparation begins with a “starter”: dough that is pre-fermented by wild yeasts and lactic-acid bacteria. This allows the development of flavours in the bread and gives sourdough its distinct taste. At the beginning of the class, none of the participants know how to judge whether the dough has risen sufficiently to be baked. Thus, the purpose of the course is to demonstrate the methods of airing as well as to give bakers “a feel” for the “right consistency” of a dough before baking it. Participants learn how to refresh a starter: augment its mass without changing its distinct flavour. The starter remains active for an indefinite time in the correct conditions. The mother sourdough (original dough) in Bread Matters, from which the majority of loaves are made, has been continuously refreshed for five years. This not only gives loaves the distinct taste of Bread Matters bread, but also provides a constant platform for Bread Matters’ education in taste. The starter can be passed on from one participant to another and from one generation to the next. In this sense, the flavours of sourdough are timeless (since they come from the same starter) yet its production process is regulated entirely by time. On the Bread Matters website, we are told that the original invention of the sourdough starter (which, we are taught, can be made from scratch from water, flour, and time) was the result of accident and not ingenuity: Review, 12 (2001), pp. 21-32, at p. 24. 73 D. Sutton, ‘Cooking Skills, the Senses and Memory: The Fate of Practical Knowledge’, (2006), in C. Counihan and P. Van Esterik (eds.), Food and Culture: A Reader (New York: Routledge, 2013), pp. 299-321, at p. 305. 74 D. Sutton, ‘A Tale of Easter Ovens: Food and Collective Memory’, Collective Memory and Collective Identity, 75 (2008), pp. 157-180. 75 P. Connerton, How Societies Remember (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1989). 76 Quoted by Sutton, ‘Cooking Skills, the Senses and Memory’, p. 303. 77 Quoted by. Ibid., p. 303. 78 T. Ingold, ‘From the Transmission of Representations to the Education of Attention’, in XMCA Research Paper Archive (2001), accessed 8 September 2014, http://lchc.ucsd.edu/mca/Paper/ingold/ingold1.htm. 14