ALBERTUS MAGNUS AND THE QUEEN OF THE ELVES:A 15th-CENTURY ENGLISH VERSE DIALOGUE ON ALCHEMY1 Abstract: This article presents an edition of a Middle English verse tract on alchemy based on Trinity College, Cambridge, MS R.14. 44 (15thcentury). The tract, entitled “Semita Recta Albertus peribet testimonium”, is struc- tured as a dialogue between Albertus Magnus, the famous medieval scholar (c. 1200–1280), and Elchy(cid:1)ell, the Queen of the Elves. In the dialogue, Elchy- (cid:1)ell instructs Albertus on how to produce an alchemical elixir that will pro- duce silver or gold. Besides presenting the edition, this article also places the dialogue in the tradition of alchemical and scientific writing in Middle English. I argue that, as in the case of many other alchemical texts of the period, the author of this tract uses Albertus and the setting of the poem to bestow dignity and credibility on the text. Furthermore, it is shown that the tract exploits several presentation strategies common in other alchemical and scientific texts, such as the verse medium, the dialogue format, the recipe structure and coded language. However, I also demonstrate that this text appears to be unique in the way it utilizes and combines these presentation strategies. 1.Introduction This article presents an edition of a 15th-century English verse tract on alchemy entitled “Semita Recta Albertus peribet testimo- nium”, ‘The Right Path Albertus bears witness’ (henceforth: Se- mita Recta). The Semita Recta is cast as a dialogue between Al- bertus Magnus, the famous 13th-century scholar, and Elchy(cid:1)ell, the Queen of the Elves. In the dialogue, Elchy(cid:1)ell teaches Alber- tus how to produce an elixir that will turn mercury into silver and gold, or, alternatively, that will turn silver into gold. The Semita Recta is preserved in two manuscripts: the 15th-century Trinity 1 I am grateful to Erik Smitterberg and Molly Zahn for reading and com- menting upon an earlier version of this article. Naturally, any remaining er- rors are entirely my own. Brought to you by | University of Kansas Libraries Authenticated | 129.237.46.100 Download Date | 3/3/14 8:00 PM albertus magnus and the queen of the elves 641 College, Cambridge, MS R.14. 44 (Part IV, ff. 15v–17r), and the 16th-century London, British Library MS Sloane 3580B (ff. 183v– 184v). In addition to providing an edition of the poem based on Tri- nity College, Cambridge, R.14. 44, this article places the Semita Recta in the tradition of alchemical writing. I will demonstrate that, in many ways, this tract epitomizes alchemical texts in gene- ral, and Middle English alchemical texts in particular: it is an ex- cellent example of the complex tradition of pseudepigraphy in me- dieval alchemy, and it illustrates how different genre conventions of alchemical writing could be exploited in English vernacular ver- se texts. 2.Alchemy and Alchemical Texts in 15th-Century England In England, the practice of alchemy was prohibited by law as early as 1404–1405.2Despite this law, however, alchemy seems to have flourished. The reigns of both Henry VI (1422–1461) and Edward IV (1461–1483) witnessed a widespread interest in the pursuit of the philosophers’ stone or elixir, which was believed to transmute base metals into silver and gold, or heal bodily diseases and prolong life.3This interest is illustrated by the fact that, from at least 1444 onwards, several prominent scholars and physicians successfully petitioned the crown for a license to practice alchemy.4 Moreover, the number of extant alchemical manuscripts from the 15th century indicates that numerous alchemical texts must have 2 D.Geoghegan, “A Licence of Henry VI to Practise Alchemy”, Ambix 6 (1957): 10–17. 3 L.E.Voigts, “The Master of the King’s Stillatories”, The Lancastrian Court: Proceedings of the 2001 Harlaxton Symposium, ed. J.Stratford (Donington: Shaun Tyas, 2003) 233–252; J.Hughes, Arthurian Myths and Alchemy: The Kingship of Edward IV (Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing, 2002) 102–103; C.M.Hathaway, ‘The Alchemist’ by Ben Jonson (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1903) 17. 4 M.Pereira, “Mater Medicinarum: English Physicians and the Alchemical Elixir in the Fifteenth Century”, Medicine from the Black Death to the French Disease, ed. R.French, J.Arrizabalaga, A.Cunningham and L.Gar- cía-Ballester (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998) 26–52, at 26–27. Brought to you by | University of Kansas Libraries Authenticated | 129.237.46.100 Download Date | 3/3/14 8:00 PM 642 peter grund been in circulation in this period.5 This in turn suggests that al- chemical experimentation was being carried out even more wide- ly than is indicated by the number of license petitions. Apart from being a golden age for alchemy, the 15thcentury is also significant for another reason. It is in this period that alche- mical texts begin to be written in English, instead of exclusively in Latin.6 This trend is of course not peculiar to texts on alchemy; rather, texts in a number of scientific disciplines begin to be ver- nacularized in this period.7 A great deal of research has recently been carried out on the characteristics of this vernacularization of scientific texts, with a focus on medical texts. Studies of medical manuscripts and the language of early English texts on medicine have pointed out a number of important linguistic developments and patterns in the transmission and dissemination of texts.8The- se findings are of great value not only for our knowledge of the vernacularization of scientific texts but also in a wider context. They can inform our understanding of the factors that influenced the more general movement that was taking place in late 14thand 15th-century England towards using English instead of Latin or French in all kinds of writing. 5 See e.g. D.W.Singer, Catalogue of Latin and Vernacular Alchemical Ma- nuscripts in Great Britain and Ireland, Dating from before the XVI Cen- tury, Vols.1–3 (Brussels: Maurice Lamertin, 1928, 1931, 1932). 6 For surveys of these English texts, see D.W.Singer, 1928, 1931 and 1932; G.Keiser, A Manual of the Writings in Middle English 1050–1500. Volu- me X: Works of Science and Information(New Haven, Connecticut: The Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1998); L.E.Voigts and P.D.Kurtz, Scientific and Medical Writings in Old and Middle English: An Electronic Reference. CD-ROM, (Ann Arbor, MI: The U of Michigan P, 2001). 7 The concept of sciencein the Middle Ages was more inclusive than it is to- day and comprised areas, such as chiromancy, geomancy and alchemy, which would be considered occult practices or at best pseudo-sciences in a modern scientific framework. See L.E.Voigts, “Scientific and Medical Books”, Book Production and Publishing in Britain, 1375–1475, ed. J.Griffiths and D.Pearsall (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1989) 345–402, at 345–348. 8 See I.Taavitsainen and P.Pahta, ed., Medical and Scientific Writing in Late Medieval English (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004); see also K.Bitterling, “Sprachkontakt und Übersetzungsliteratur in spätmittelenglischer Zeit”, Anglia120 (2002): 200–227. Brought to you by | University of Kansas Libraries Authenticated | 129.237.46.100 Download Date | 3/3/14 8:00 PM albertus magnus and the queen of the elves 643 Although our knowledge of the Englishing of medical texts has been greatly enhanced by recent research, very little is known ab- out the dynamics of the vernacularization of alchemical texts. The simple reason for this is that very few editions and studies of ear- ly alchemical texts exist, even though bibliographic works have made available basic information on a large number of vernacular alchemical texts from the 15th century.9 Prose texts remain virtu- ally unexplored,10whereas the situation for verse texts is slightly better. Many of the surviving verse texts in Middle English were included in Elias Ashmole’s Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum (TCB), published in 1652, which has been reprinted several times in the twentieth century.11 Two poems also exist in modern edi- tions, which contain extensive studies of the poems’ sociohistori- cal context: George Ripley’s Compound of Alchymy from 1471 and Thomas Norton’s Ordinal of Alchemyfrom 1477.12Most po- ems, however, do not exist in modern editions that consider the manuscript tradition of the poems, and the structure, content and conventions of alchemical poems remain unstudied. This edition of the Semita Rectaand the study of its characteristics address this lack of modern studies. I will also make comparisons with other alchemical poems of the 15thand 16thcenturies, and thus illustrate more general patterns and conventions among Middle English alchemical verse tracts. 9 P.Grund, “In Search of Gold: Towards a Text Edition of an Alchemical Tre- atise”, Middle English from Tongue to Text, ed. P.J.Lucas and A.M.Lu- cas (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2002) 265–279, at 265–266; P.Grund “‘ffor to make Azure as Albert biddes’: Medieval English Alche- mical Writings in the Pseudo-Albertan Tradition”, Ambix(Forthcoming). 10 See, however, Grund 2002; Grund, “Misticall Wordes and Names Infini- te”: An Edition of Humfrey Lock’s Treatise on Alchemy, with an Intro- duction, Explanatory Notes and Glossary (Unpublished Ph. D. disserta- tion: Uppsala University, 2004); Grund, “‘ffor to make Azure as Albert biddes’ ...”, Ambix(forthcoming). 11 E.Ashmole, Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum(London, 1652; reprinted Kila, Montana: Kessinger Publishing, 2001) [TCB]. 12 J.Reidy, ed., Thomas Norton’s ‘Ordinal of Alchemy’ EETS OS 272 (Ox- ford: Oxford UP, 1975); S.J.Linden, ed. George Ripley’s‘Compound of Alchymy’ (1591) (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001). See also A.Timmermann, An Edition of the Medieval Alchemical Poem ‘Verses upon the Elixir’(Un- published M.Phil. thesis, University of Glasgow, 2003). Brought to you by | University of Kansas Libraries Authenticated | 129.237.46.100 Download Date | 3/3/14 8:00 PM 644 peter grund 3.Content The Semita Rectais a poem of 64 rhymed lines. On the basis of the content, the poem can be divided into several sections. The validity of the alchemical procedure described in the poem is esta- blished in the first three lines, where the poem’s narrating “I” pro- nounces it to be one of the best procedures available to create the elixir. Lines 4–8 go on to outline the potency of the elixir, stating that, if it is applied to mercury, it will produce silver or gold (de- pending on the amount of mercury used), or, if it is applied to sil- ver, it will produce gold. The exposition of the procedure begins in line 9 and continues to the end of the poem (line 64). The setting of this description is a meeting between the medieval scholar Al- bertus Magnus (c.1200–1280) and Elchy(cid:1)ell, the Queen of the El- ves, in a “weldernesse” outside Damascus (see 4.1). After setting the scene in lines 9–18, the poem outlines the theoretical founda- tion of the production of the elixir in lines 19–36. This description is given by Elchy(cid:1)ell and is interrupted twice by Albertus with re- quests for clarification. The poem draws upon the notion common in alchemy that an elixir may be produced by mixing mercury and sulfur. In this context, mercury and sulfur should not be under- stood as the substances known as mercury and sulfur today; rat- her, they should be regarded as the two primary constituents or elements of all metals and of the elixir. Simply put, alchemists be- lieved that, since all metals contained mercury and sulfur in diffe- rent proportions, one metal could be turned into another if the proportions were changed. The means of accomplishing this transmutation was the elixir, which was thought to change the ba- lance of the two constituents by supplying additional mercury or sulfur.13After this theoretical discussion, the remaining part of the poem (lines 37–64) is structured as a recipe where Elchy(cid:1)ell pro- vides instructions on how to produce the elixir. Again, Albertus intervenes at a few points with requests for clarification. This sec- tion contains anagrams and coded language, which are common features of alchemical literature (see 4.3). 13 F.S.Taylor, The Alchemists: Founders of Modern Chemistry(New York: Henry Schuman, 1949) 80–81; G.Roberts, The Mirror of Alchemy: Al- chemical Ideas and Images in Manuscripts and Books(London: The Bri- tish Library, 1994) 50–51, 62. Brought to you by | University of Kansas Libraries Authenticated | 129.237.46.100 Download Date | 3/3/14 8:00 PM albertus magnus and the queen of the elves 645 4.The Structure of the Semita Recta 4.1Characters and Setting The characters and setting of the Semita Rectaprovide important clues for our understanding of the poem’s authority claim and its place in the tradition of alchemical writing. Although the charac- ters and setting might appear to be fictional from a modern per- spective, it is not certain that medieval readers would have per- ceived them as such. In fact, there are reasons to believe that they were chosen to bestow credibility and dignity on the poem and therefore that readers of the poem would have interpreted them as non-fictional. As mentioned earlier, one of the two characters in the poem is Albertus Magnus. Interestingly, Albertus’s name always appears as simply “Albertus” or “Albert” in the Semita Recta. Although no epithet is given which would help to clearly identify the figure as Albertus Magnus, it is unlikely that anyone but Albertus Mag- nus is intended. This is suggested by a number of facts known ab- out Albertus Magnus and his association with alchemy. Albertus Magnus was a well-known name in alchemical circles in the Middle Ages and the early modern period. This fame might part- ly stem from his statements in some authentic writings, in parti- cular De Mineralibus, that alchemical theory is sound. At the same time, he also states that he has never seen alchemical proce- dures carried out in practice. He is moreover overtly critical of some aspects of alchemy, including the alchemists’ over-reliance on earlier authorities instead of first-hand observation. Besides Albertus’s predominantly critical attitude towards alchemy, there is also a lack of contemporary evidence suggesting that Albertus Magnus was a practicing alchemist or wrote alchemical texts.14 Nevertheless, more than 30 texts on alchemy were in circulation under Albertus’s name during the Middle Ages.15 These texts, 14 P.Kibre, “Albertus Magnus on Alchemy”, Albertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays 1980, ed. J.A.Weisheipl (Toronto: Pon- tifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1980) 187–202, at 190–194. 15 P.Kibre, “Alchemical Writings Ascribed to Albertus Magnus”, Speculum 17 (1942): 499–518; P.Kibre, “Further Manuscripts Containing Alchemi- cal Tracts Attributed to Albertus Magnus”, Speculum34 (1959): 238–247. Brought to you by | University of Kansas Libraries Authenticated | 129.237.46.100 Download Date | 3/3/14 8:00 PM 646 peter grund however, appear all to have been spurious attributions, probably fueled by Albertus’s favorable comments about alchemical theory. Conspicuously, these texts do not begin to appear until after his death and only become common in the 14th and 15th centuries. What is particularly significant for this discussion as regards this corpus of writings is that one of the earliest and certainly the most widely disseminated pseudo-Albertan text is a prose treatise that mostly appears under the title Semita Recta in manuscripts. Sur- viving in more than 40 copies in Latin, the prose text must have been considered a standard work or even a handbook of basic al- chemical practice.16 Together with Albertus’s alleged association with alchemy, the appearance of the title Semita Rectain the poem in question thus seems to be a clear indication that the Albertus mentioned in the poem is intended to be Albertus Magnus and that readers would have recognized that. Even if the “Albertus” of the poem is Albertus Magnus, which the evidence clearly suggests, there is still a problematic issue, na- mely what Albertus’s exact role is in the poem. The appearance of the title Semita Recta in connection with Albertus seems to have led compilers of modern bibliographies to assume that this poem is a verse version of the longer prose text and hence that it should be considered pseudepigraphic.17 However, such an as- sumption is fraught with problems. The full title, as it is found in the two extant manuscripts, needs to be considered here: “Semita Recta Albertus peribet testimonium”, ‘The Right Path Albertus bears witness’. The title does not unequivocally attribute the poem to Albertus; instead, it simply indicates that Albertus attests to the validity of the process, i.e. he bears witness that it consti- tutes the right path. The structure of the poem lends support to See also P.Grund, “‘ffor to make Azure as Albert biddes’ ...”, Ambix (forthcoming). The ascription of alchemical writings to notable scholars and clergymen was one of the most characteristic features of medieval al- chemy; see e.g. M Pereira’s discussion of alchemical writings attributed to the medieval mystic Raymond Lull; M.Pereira, The Alchemical Corpus Attributed to Raymond Lull, XVIII (London: Warburg Institute Surveys and Texts, The Warburg Institute, 1989). 16 Grund, “‘ffor to make Azure as Albert biddes’ ...”, Ambix(forthcoming). 17 Singer 1928, 156; Keiser 1998, 3791; R.M.Schuler, English Magical and Scientific Poems to 1700: An Annotated Bibliography(New York & Lon- don: Garland, 1979) no. 3. Brought to you by | University of Kansas Libraries Authenticated | 129.237.46.100 Download Date | 3/3/14 8:00 PM albertus magnus and the queen of the elves 647 this theory, since the poem seems to consist of several layers. The first eight lines establish the validity of the procedure according to the ‘I’ or the author of the poem; the actual retelling of the meeting between Albertus and the Queen of the Elves does not begin until line 9. It is significant that the first eight lines contain ‘I’ forms, whereas the introduction of the dialogue (l.9ff.) men- tions Albertus in the third person (e.g. “Albertus knew here ful wel I wene | for oftyn beforn he had here sene”). It thus seems that the ‘I’ of the poem is simply retelling Albertus’s experience and is not Albertus himself. If the verse Semita Rectais not pseudepigraphic, as the evidence seems to indicate, the alleged relationship between the verse and the prose Semita Recta is called into question. Another piece of evidence suggesting that there is no textual relationship between the two is the fact that there is no procedure in the prose Semita Recta that is exactly parallel to the one that is expounded upon by the Queen of the Elves. As mentioned before, the verse Semita Recta describes an elixir produced by the mixing of sulfur and mercury. Although such ideas are also found in the prose text, there is all the same no obvious connection between the specifics of the procedures described in the two texts. It is also true that instructions that call for the use of sulfur and mercury are com- monplace in alchemical writings.18 Consequently, naming the verse dialogue Semita Recta may of course be an allusion to the popular, widely circulated prose text, but there is no indication that the intention was to emulate in verse the prose Semita Recta. The aim may instead be to exploit the fame of Albertus as an alchemist, and the renown of the prose Semita Recta, to gain authority and credibility. Casting the Queen of the Elves as Albertus’s instructor in the poem does not necessarily detract from the poem’s claim of au- thority. In fact, it may have been part of a conscious strategy, taking advantage of Albertus’s reputation as a man possessing 18 I have only consulted a limited number of printed and manuscript versions of the Latin Semita Recta (see P.Grund, “‘ffor to make Azure as Al- bert biddes’ ...”, forthcoming). There seems to be some uniformity among the manuscripts, but there are also copies of the text that present widely aberrant versions. Naturally, there may exist, or have existed, a version which contained the procedure outlined in the verse dialogue. Brought to you by | University of Kansas Libraries Authenticated | 129.237.46.100 Download Date | 3/3/14 8:00 PM 648 peter grund superhuman powers. Numerous stories of Albertus performing magical feats and supernatural acts were circulating in the 14thand 15thcenturies; several of these stories involve Albertus conversing with spirits or demons.19It is quite possible that Albertus’s dialo- gue with the Queen of the Elves would have been understood and interpreted as yet another example of his connection with the supernatural, thus adding to Albertus’s already mythical status.20 The choice of Damascus as the setting for the meeting between Albertus and Elchy(cid:1)ell may at first seem peculiar. There is of cour- se no historical evidence that Albertus ever visited Damascus. Ho- wever, rather than having a direct connection with Albertus, Da- mascus may have been chosen in order to exploit its mythical sta- tus and its associations with alchemy. Damascus was certainly known in late medieval England, not the least in connection with the famous damask cloth.21 It must also have been known in a more religious or mythical context. The monk in Chaucer’s Mon- k’s Tale, for example, declares that Adam was created by God “in the feeld of Damyssene”, ‘in the field of Damascus’, and hence brought into Paradise.22This legend is also found in other medie- val texts, including the probable sources of Chaucer’s tale: Bocca- cio’s De Casibus Virorum et Feminarum Illustriumand Vincent of Beauvais’s Speculum Historiale.23This suggests that it was a fair- ly widespread notion. More importantly, however, there is a spe- cific connection between Damascus and alchemy. One of the most extensively cited alchemical authorities in the Middle Ages is the 19 W.P.Eckert, “Albert-Legenden”, Albert der Grosse: Seine Zeit, sein Werk, seine Wirkung, ed. A.Zimmermann (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1981) 1– 23. 20 It is possible that, like so many names of substances in the poem, Elchy- (cid:1)ell is an anagram or code. “Elchy(cid:1)ell” (or a similar name) does not seem to appear elsewhere as the name of the Queen of the Elves. See L.Spence, The Fairy Tradition in Britain (New York: Rider and Company, 1948) 24–25. 21 See MED s.v. damask and OED s.v. damask; MED=Middle English Dictionary (available at http://ets.umdl.umich.edu/m/mec/), as accessed in 2004. 22 L.D.Benson, ed., The Riverside Chaucer, 3rd ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987) 241 [l. 2007], 930. 23 P.Aiken, “Vincent of Beauvais and Chaucer’s Monk’s Tale”, Speculum17 (1942) 56–68, at 56–57. Brought to you by | University of Kansas Libraries Authenticated | 129.237.46.100 Download Date | 3/3/14 8:00 PM albertus magnus and the queen of the elves 649 legendary monk Morienus or Maryanus (see also 4.2). According to both historical and alchemical sources, Morienus, who lived as a hermit outside Damascus, instructed the Ummayyad Prince Kha¯lid ibn Yaz¯ıd (635–704? AD) of Damascus in the art of alche- my.24Although there seems to be little clear historical evidence for this, the legend must have been well known among alchemists of the Middle Ages.25 L.Stavenhagen has demonstrated that an al- chemical text which relates the story of how Morienus and Kha¯lid met and which describes their subsequent alchemical discussions circulated in a large number of copies from the 13thcentury to the 17th century.26 It is thus possible that, by using Damascus as the setting, the author of the Semita Rectawanted to conjure up asso- ciations with alchemy and other mythical legends to give even more weight to his alchemical text. Although there is no obvious, historical connection between Albertus and Damascus, the fact that they both enjoyed legend status and the fact that they were both associated with alchemy might have been enough to make their appearance in the same context credible. 4.2Medium, Structure and Presentation Strategy The fact that the Semita Rectais written in verse firmly anchors the text in a well-established tradition, not the least in an English alchemical context. The writing of scientific texts in verse was not an uncommon phenomenon in the Middle Ages, and the tradition of scientific or didactic poetry goes back at least as far as Classi- cal Antiquity.27In Middle English, there are poems dealing with a 24 M.Ullmann, “Ha¯lid ibn Yaz¯ıd und die Alchemie: Eine Legende”, Der Is- lam55 (1978): 181–218, esp. 191–192; E.J.Holmyard, Alchemy(New York: Dover, 1957, reprinted 1990) 63–66. Some versions of the legend seem to put Morienus outside Jerusalem rather than Damascus; Holmy- ard 1990, 64. 25 J.Ruska, Arabische Alchemisten. I.Cha¯lid ibn Jaz¯ıd ibn Mua¯wija, Vol.1 (Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1924); Ullmann 1978. 26 L.Stavenhagen, “The Original Text of the Latin Morienus”, Ambix 17 (1970): 1–12. 27 R.M.Schuler, “Three Renaissance Scientific Poems”, Studies in Philolo- gy 75 (1978): 1–3; R.M.Schuler, Alchemical Poetry 1575–1700. From Previously Unpublished Manuscripts (New York: Garland, 1995) xxv– Brought to you by | University of Kansas Libraries Authenticated | 129.237.46.100 Download Date | 3/3/14 8:00 PM