SDG: 2 Zero Hunger Jagadish Timsina · Tek N. Maraseni · Devendra Gauchan · Jagannath Adhikari · Hemant Ojha   Editors Agriculture, Natural Resources and Food Security Lessons from Nepal Sustainable Development Goals Series The Sustainable Development Goals Series is Springer Nature’s inaugural cross-imprint book series that addresses and supports the United Nations’ seventeenSustainableDevelopmentGoals.Theseriesfosterscomprehensive research focused on these global targets and endeavours to address some of society’s greatest grand challenges. The SDGs are inherently multidisci- plinary, and they bring people working across different fields together and workingtowardsacommongoal.Inthisspirit,theSustainableDevelopment Goals series is the first at Springer Nature to publish books under both the Springer and Palgrave Macmillan imprints, bringing the strengths of our imprints together. The Sustainable Development Goals Series is organized into eighteen subseries: one subseries based around each of the seventeen respective Sustainable Development Goals, and an eighteenth subseries, “Connecting theGoals,”whichservesasahomeforvolumesaddressingmultiplegoalsor studying the SDGs as a whole. Each subseries is guided by an expert Subseries Advisor with years or decades of experience studying and addressing core components of their respective Goal. The SDG Series has a remit as broad as the SDGs themselves, and contributions are welcome from scientists, academics, policymakers, and researchers working in fields related to any of the seventeen goals. If you are interested in contributing a monograph or curated volume to the series, please contact the Publishers: Zachary Romano [Springer; zachary.romano@springer. com]andRachaelBallard[PalgraveMacmillan;[email protected]]. Jagadish Timsina (cid:129) Tek N. Maraseni (cid:129) Devendra Gauchan (cid:129) Jagannath Adhikari (cid:129) Hemant Ojha Editors Agriculture, Natural Resources and Food Security Lessons from Nepal 123 Editors Jagadish Timsina (Editor-in-Chief) TekN.Maraseni Institute for Studyand Centerfor Sustainable Development Worldwide AgriculturalSystems, ILSE Sydney,Australia University of SouthernQueensland Toowoomba, QLD,Australia GlobalEvergreening Alliance Melbourne, VIC,Australia JagannathAdhikari AdjunctFaculty Devendra Gauchan Curtin University Bioversity International, Nepal Eden Hill,WA,Australia Kathmandu,Nepal Hemant Ojha Institute for StudyandDevelopment Worldwide Sydney,Australia University of Canberra Canberra,ACT, Australia ISSN 2523-3084 ISSN 2523-3092 (electronic) Sustainable Development GoalsSeries ISBN978-3-031-09554-2 ISBN978-3-031-09555-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09555-9 Color wheel and icons: From https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/, Copyright © 2020 UnitedNations.UsedwiththepermissionoftheUnitedNations.Thecontentofthispublication hasnotbeenapprovedbytheUnitedNationsanddoesnotreflecttheviewsoftheUnitedNations oritsofficialsorMemberStates. ©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature SwitzerlandAG2022,correctedpublication2022 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinany otherphysicalway,andtransmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation, computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthis publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exemptfromtherelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Thepublisher,theauthors,andtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationin thisbookarebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material containedhereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremains neutralwithregardtojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Foreword by John Dixon Nepal is a land-locked country of immense diversity, ecologically and ethnographically. The hills and mountains of the Himalayas dominate the landscape, so that average altitude exceeds all countries in the world except nearby Bhutan. A narrow east-west strip of lowland Terai divides the NepaleseHillsfromtheGangesfloodplainsofIndia.Thedissectedlandscape and limited infrastructure are major constraints to, but simultaneously opportunities for, sustainable development. The remoteness, diversity, dynamics,andintegrationofmanyofthefarmingandfoodsystemsofNepal have been a severe challenge to researchers and policy makers for many decades. The livelihoods of Nepalese farm families are in transition and dependonfourevolvingpillars:availablenaturalresources;themanagement ofinterdependentcrops, livestock,andforests;linkages tovalue chains; and off-farm income from local, regional, or international work. Cereals, espe- cially rice, wheat, maize, millet, and barley, underpin dietary energy con- sumption for farmers and city-dwellers alike, increasingly supplemented by vegetables, milk products, eggs, and meat. Today, livestock—cattle, sheep, goats,andyaks—plays importantrolesinhuman nutritionandcashincome. Their traditional functions as sources of manure for plant nutrition and draft power for ground preparation, threshing, and transportation are being replaced by mechanization. Forests provide fuelwood, timber, fodder, leaf litter, and ecosystem services. The use of external inputs such as seed, fer- tilizer, feed, and seedlings is low by Asian standards, yet growing as infrastructure and market systems develop. Farming system productivity is also lower than many Asian countries, and slow growth is a challenge for household and national food security. In fact, the national food system has increasing dependence on cereal imports. PlannersoftendistinguishthreebroadfarmingandfoodsystemsinNepal —the lowland Terai, the mid-Hills, and the high Mountain systems. Typi- cally,thelowlandTeraisystemshavelargeraveragefarmsizes(althoughstill small), more irrigation, and better access to input and produce markets, including the mega-markets of neighboring India—and good potential for crop intensification and diversification. The Hill farming and food system featuresstrongcrop–livestock–forestlinkagesandstrongsocialcapitalwhich are both weakening as population pressure grows and market access improves, especially in districts close to cities or with well-organized value chains for milk or horticultural produce, e.g., orange. Off-farm income has grown in importance for rural livelihoods and farm investment. The v vi ForewordbyJohnDixon mountain farming system features even stronger population pressure on limited cultivated land and features a variety of minor food crops, potatoes, andgrazingyaks,cattle,andtheircrosses.Tourismisanimportantsourceof local income. Both the hill and mountain systems have experienced strong temporaryout-migrationinsearchofremittanceincomeaswellaspermanent relocation to urban centers and the Terai—and growing evidence of aban- donment of marginal cropland. Due to the confluence of ecological and economic characteristics, Nepal hasauniqueruraldevelopmentexperiencefromwhichlessonscanbedrawn for other small land-locked and mountainous countries around the world. Thisbook,Agriculture,NaturalResourcesandFoodSecurity:Lessonsfrom Nepal is a valuable compendium of rural development knowledge for South Asiaandotherdevelopingregionsoftheworld.Eachofthe24chapterstakes adeepdiveononeoranothercomponentofthefarmingandfoodsystemsof Nepal. Related to crops, the well-experienced authors document urban agriculture,agro-biodiversity,soilhealth,pestanddiseasemanagement,food safety, food production, fruits and vegetables, post-harvest management, citrus production, seed systems, and emerging approaches of conservation agricultureandregenerativeagriculture.Inrelationtoanimalproduction,the book analyses livestock development, livestock (and land) ownership, fish- eries,andtheemergingone-healthapproach.Theroleofforestryisexamined throughthedrivers–pressures–states–impacts–responses(DPSIR)framework andthesuccessofcommunityforestry(forwhichNepalisfamous)leadingto emergingthinkingonecosystemservicesandselectiveloggingpolicies.The pillarsofcrops,animals,andforestsaretiedtogetherthroughthecrosscutting themes of the water–energy–food nexus (as a planning framework), climate-relatedcropsimulationmodeling(asadecisionsupportsystemtool), and a final chapter on gender and adaptation to climate variability. Many of these chapters present analyses of relevant sector and sub-sector trends which point to a mixture of challenges and successes. As in other countries, these agricultural dynamics arise from seven drivers and trends associated with demography, natural resources and climate, knowledge systems and gender, science and technology, markets and infrastructure, and institutions and policies. Overall, the book signals an optimistic view of farming and food systems development in Nepal. In fact, with a recently updated con- stitution and governance institutions, Nepal looks forward to a vision of achieving the sustainable development goals by 2030 and graduating from the least developed country status to a middle-income developing country soon to create a prosperous and happy Nepal. Eachchapterandthewholebookcontaindevelopmentinsightsinrelation tohighlyconstrainedsmallholderagriculturewhichareofimmensevalueto researchers and policy makers in Nepal and in other countries with similar situations and farming systems. For example, the successes and challenges of the Nepalese Hill diversified farming system (termed the South Asian HighlandFarmingSystembyFAOandtheWorldBank)aredirectlyrelevant to 65 million ha across the South Asian Himalayas from Afghanistan to Myanmar, as well as similar farming systems in east and southeast Asia, Africa,andLatinAmerica.Thegreatpotentialforintegratedfarmingsystems ForewordbyJohnDixon vii with effective market access, such as agroforestry systems incorporating trees, crop, and livestock, is emphasized. In a similar fashion, the insights from interlinked agricultural and tourism development in the Nepalese Mountain farming system (termed the South Asian Sparse Farming System) are valuable for 34 million ha across the South Asia region, as well as the high mountains of Africa and Latin America. Of course, these highland and mountainfarmingsystemsconstitutethewatertowerswhichunderpinenergy and food production for hundreds of millions of lowland populations in SouthAsiaandtherestoftheworld.Inconclusion,theanalysesoftherural development experiences in Nepal will be valuable reading for many researchers and policy makers in emerging economies around the world. John Dixon FTSE Adjunct Professor University of Queensland Visiting Fellow Australian National University Visiting Professor Gansu Agricultural University Canberra, Australia The original version of this book was revised: For detailed information, please see Correctionchapter.Thecorrectiontothisbookisavailableathttps://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3-031-09555-9_25 Foreword by Bimala Rai Paudyal Nepal is one of the richest countries in the world in terms of its incredibly diverse ecology, ecosystems, and biological resources. Human diversity further makes the country rich in knowledge, skills, and capacities. The country is strategically located between two large and rapidly growing economies, namely China and India. However, despite its richness in geo- graphic, environmental, and socio-cultural diversity, the country remains economically poor where poverty, food insecurity, and malnutrition have persisted through time. Agriculture, engaging two-third of labor force, is virtuallystagnatedwithgrowthrateremaininglessthan3%forthepastthree decades.Itssharetotheeconomyisconstantlydecreasingfrom66%in1970 to33%in2010and23%in2020.WhilefoodsecurityinNepalhasimproved in recent years, the improvement is linked, not to the agriculture production but, to the rapidly growing remittances from overseas migration. About 4.6 million people are still food-insecure, and nearly, half of all children below theageoffivearemalnourishedinthecountry.Whyistheresuchawidegap between the potentials and realities? With the growing realization that food security is intrinsically linked to human and national security, especially in the context of climate crises and geo-politicaldimensions,recentyearshavewitnessedincreasinginterestand investment in Nepal from all corners, especially toward innovations, mod- ernization, and expansion of domestic markets in agriculture. The rising demandforhomegrownstaplefoodandhigh-valuecommoditiesindomestic and international markets already provides tremendous opportunities for an increased and diversified agricultural production and income. This is an opportune moment to assess and compile good practices, challenges, and opportunities in terms of policies, technologies, extension, and service modalities in such a way that this momentum is capitalized sustainably and equitably. Although there has been some research and learning documentation on macro-aswellasmicro-levelinitiativestoaddressthepolicyandknowledge gaps in the sector, the initiatives are scattered and very few come to the notice of dominant policy makers, practitioners, and academics to make an impact. A systematic and comprehensive documentation with professional scrutiny would provide a solid basis for policy makers and practitioners for much-needed improvement needed in the sector. This book, Agriculture, NaturalResources,andFoodSecurity:LessonsfromNepalisaproductofan enquiryfromexperts,scientists,academic,researchers,andpractitionersthat ix x ForewordbyBimalaRaiPaudyal are multidisciplinary in nature and are interrelated in many ways. The book not only explains the current gaps and explores the potentials in the sectors within the rapidly changing sociopolitical and environmental contexts in Nepal but also showcases practices that can be scaled up throughout the country and beyond. It also provides a useful reference to many other countries in the world that are rich in natural and human resources yet challenged in achieving food security. Dividedintofourmajorpartsofinterrelatedthemes,thebookprovides24 chapters,andeachchapterisrichincontentandmethodologicalrigor.PartI —“Agriculture, Horticulture, and Post-harvest management”—highlights a widerangeofissuesandgoodpracticesrelatedtoagriculturalproductionand services. Authors outline the potentials of urban agriculture as a model of well-being; advocate for conservation and the use of agro-biodiversity and forimprovingsoilhealthandsecurityforfoodsecurity;introducetheconcept of plant clinics for better access to crop health services; assess the food productionandproductivitygap;highlighttheneedforincreasedinvestment for production and post-harvest management of fruits and vegetables; importance of strengthening national seed system and the conservation of agriculturetechnology.Furthermore,theycautionthereadersonthegrowing risks of toxins, contaminants, and adulterants in food and recommend the solution. InPart II—“Livestock andFisheries”—authors highlight thecontribution oflivestockandimportanceoflandandlivestockownershipforfoodsecurity in Nepal and point out constraints, gaps, and opportunities for livestock development; explore the contribution offishery in the economy; emphasize theinterconnectednessofanimal–human–environmentalhealthinthecontext of the COVID-19 pandemic and introduce the “One Health” approach for more collaborative, multidisciplinary, and multi-sectoral solution. Further- more,theauthorsintroduceacomprehensiveframework(DPSIR)toanalyze the socio-ecological impacts of transhumance system. Part III—“Forestry, Community Forestry, and Agroforestry”—provides insightful reflections on the potentials of agroforestry becoming an alternative to crop-focused farming and assesses the implications of logging policies and practices on livelihoods.Drawingonlessonsfromcommunityforestrymanagement,they further assess the potential of an ecosystem-centered approach for local livelihoods and suggest a way forward for a wide and sustainable impact. In the final part—“Cross Cutting Topics”—authors introduce the W-E-F nexus approach to policy planning and development for sustainable and equitable water, energy, and food security. The potential of crop simulation models to increase food security is explored in the context of changing climate. The final chapter acknowledges the importance of gender roles and relationsandexaminestheinterplaybetweengenderequityandadaptationin theNepaleseHimalayas.Increasingfeminizationofagriculturalworksonthe one hand and widening gender disparities in access to and control over information,technologies,andservices ontheotherrequiresmorededicated investigation on gender barriers, opportunities, and implications. More importantly, because of direct exposure to nature and greater dependency to perform gender roles, women hold vast knowledge, skills, and capacity for