Energy, Environment, and Sustainability Series Editors: Avinash Kumar Agarwal · Ashok Pandey Himanshu Tyagi Avinash Kumar Agarwal Prodyut R. Chakraborty Satvasheel Powar Editors Advances in Solar Energy Research Energy, Environment, and Sustainability Series editors Avinash Kumar Agarwal, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India Ashok Pandey, Distinguished Scientist, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India This books series publishes cutting edge monographs and professional books focused on all aspects of energy and environmental sustainability, especially as it relates to energy concerns. The Series is published in partnership with the International Society for Energy, Environment, and Sustainability. The books in these series are editor or authored by top researchers and professional across the globe. The series aims at publishing state-of-the-art research and development in areas including, but not limited to: (cid:129) Renewable Energy (cid:129) Alternative Fuels (cid:129) Engines and Locomotives (cid:129) Combustion and Propulsion (cid:129) Fossil Fuels (cid:129) Carbon Capture (cid:129) Control and Automation for Energy (cid:129) Environmental Pollution (cid:129) Waste Management (cid:129) Transportation Sustainability More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15901 Himanshu Tyagi Avinash Kumar Agarwal (cid:129) Prodyut R. Chakraborty Satvasheel Powar (cid:129) Editors Advances in Solar Energy Research 123 Editors HimanshuTyagi ProdyutR. Chakraborty Department ofMechanical Engineering Department ofMechanical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Ropar Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur Rupnagar,India Jodhpur, Rajasthan,India Avinash KumarAgarwal SatvasheelPowar Department ofMechanical Engineering Department ofMechanical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Indian Institute of Technology Mandi Kanpur,Uttar Pradesh, India Mandi,Himachal Pradesh, India ISSN 2522-8366 ISSN 2522-8374 (electronic) Energy,Environment, andSustainability ISBN978-981-13-3301-9 ISBN978-981-13-3302-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3302-6 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2018961729 ©SpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd.2019 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpart of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission orinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar methodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfrom therelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authorsortheeditorsgiveawarranty,expressorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinor for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd. Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:152BeachRoad,#21-01/04GatewayEast,Singapore189721, Singapore Foreword Why Do We Need Solar Energy Research? Thisvolumeincludesexcellentoverviewsofanumberoftraditionalandemerging areas of solar research, such as solar photovoltaic cells and systems, solar fuels, concentratingsolarpower,solarthermalapplications.Itisclear,evenwithdecades ofsolarenergyresearchbehindus,thatthereremainsanurgentneedforcontinued scientific and technological advances, particularly in India. Data and forecasts availablefromtheInternationalEnergyAgency(https://www.iea.org/)suggestthat from2016to2040,Indiawillbethesinglelargestcontributor(*30%)togrowthin worldwideenergydemand,overtakingChinaandleadingtoanestimated*11%of global energy consumption in 2040. The total primary energy supply (TPES) of India, defined as the net difference between local production and imports (+) and exports and storage (−), is growing at an average rate of *5%/year since 2006, compared with a negative TPES growth rate for China in 2016. Interestingly, relatively few articles in this volume discuss concentrating solar power (CSP), which for some time has been the main driver behind solar thermal engineering research. It is quite possible that the authors represented here recognize that CSP will increasingly lose market share to utility-scale photovoltaic power, especially withcontinuedadvancesinutility-scalebatteries.Thismeansthatthesolarthermal research community, in India and elsewhere, needs to turn their attention to other pressing issues for which solar thermal energy can be better suited. ReturningourattentiontothetitleofthisForeword,itisworthwhiletoconsider thepotentialimpacts ofsolarenergy researchbeyondsimply substitutingforfossil fuels. Of course, the greenhouse gas (GHG) implications of renewable energy are apparent, although often these are not well quantified by solar researchers. But, GHG emissions are just one environmental impact offossil fuels. Burning coal, in particular,releasesheavymetals,particulates,andNOxintotheenvironment,notto v vi Foreword mention the deleterious environmental and health impacts of coal mining.1 But sometimes,whatisoverlookedistheeconomicimpactofsolarenergydevelopment and technology deployment. Solar energy, as well as other renewable energy technologies suchaswindenergy, tends tocreatelocaljobs inboth manufacturing andassemblyandininstallationandmaintenance.Forexample,intheUSA,theUS Bureau of Labor Statistics forecasts an employment growth rate of 105% for solar PV installers from 2016 to 2026.2 On the macroeconomic level, money that (usually) flows out of an area (or country) to purchase fossil fuels will instead remainlocal,oncetheneedforthosefossilfuelsiseliminated.Inshort,solarenergy research is needed for many reasons—micro- and macroeconomic, environmental, and health—and solar energy researchers need to understand these motivations to better position their research agendas in this wider context. What areas of solar energy research may, in particular, require more attention? One area is industrial process heating, which can be divided into low-temperature (<100 °C), medium-temperature (100–400 °C), and high-temperature (>400 °C) applications. Such industrial heating represents *20% of global energy con- sumption, and India is poised to once again overtake China as the greatest single contributortogrowthintheneedforhigh-temperatureindustrialheat.3Innovations inbothsolarthermalengineeringandhigh-temperatureheatpumpsarenecessaryto reduce the huge amount of GHG emissions that will be generated by simply burning fossil fuels to produce heat. Other applications may well involve the combined use of solar thermal energy and solar photovoltaics, as well as solar-driven chemistry such as photocatalysis. Whatever the application, the solar energy research community is ready, capable, and willing to address these out- standing global problems. Tempe, Arizona, USA Prof. Patrick E. Phelan Professor,Mechanical& AerospaceEngineering& AssistantDeanofGraduatePrograms, IraA.FultonSchoolsofEngineering ArizonaStateUniversity 1See,e.g.,Munawer,M.E.,2018,“Humanhealthandenvironmentalimpactsofcoalcombustion andpost-combustionwastes,”JournalofSustainableMining,Vol.17,pp.87–96. 2https://www.bls.gov/ooh/construction-and-extraction/solar-photovoltaic-installers.htm. 3https://www.iea.org/newsroom/news/2018/january/commentary-clean-and-efficient-heat-for-industry. html. Preface Energy demand has been rising remarkably due to increasing population and urbanization. Global economy and society are significantly dependent on energy availability because it touches every facet of human life and its activities. Transportation and power generation are two major examples. Without the trans- portationbymillionsofpersonalizedandmasstransportvehiclesandavailabilityof 24 (cid:1) 7 power, human civilization would not have reached contemporary living standards. The International Society for Energy, Environment, and Sustainability (ISEES) was founded at Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur (IIT Kanpur), India, in January 2014 with the aim of spreading knowledge/awareness and catalyzing research activities in the fields of energy, environment, sustainability, and com- bustion.Thesociety’sgoalistocontributetothedevelopmentofclean,affordable, and secure energy resources and a sustainable environment for the society and to spread knowledge in the above-mentioned areas and create awareness about the environmental challenges, which the world is facing today. The unique way adopted by the society was to break the conventional silos of specializations (engineering, science, environment, agriculture, biotechnology, materials, fuels, etc.) to tackle the problems related to energy, environment, and sustainability in a holisticmanner.This isquite evident bytheparticipation of experts from all fields to resolve these issues. ISEES is involved in various activities such as conducting workshops, seminars, and conferences in the domains of its interest. The society also recognizes the outstanding works done by the young scientists and engineers for their contributions in these fields by conferring them awards under various categories. Thesecondinternationalconferenceon“SustainableEnergyandEnvironmental Challenges” (SEEC-2018) was organized under the auspices of ISEES from December31,2017,toJanuary3,2018,atJNTataAuditorium,IndianInstituteof Science, Bangalore. This conference provided a platform for discussions between eminent scientists and engineers from various countries including India, USA, South Korea, Norway, Finland, Malaysia, Austria, Saudi Arabia, and Australia. In this conference, eminent speakers from all over the world presented their views vii viii Preface relatedtodifferentaspectsofenergy,combustion,emissions,andalternativeenergy resources for sustainable development and a cleaner environment. The conference presentedfivehigh-voltageplenarytalksfromgloballyrenownedexpertsontopical themes, namely “Is It Really the End of Combustion Engines and Petroleum?” by Prof.Gautamkalghatgi,SaudiAramco;“EnergySustainabilityinIndia:Challenges and Opportunities” by Prof. Baldev Raj, NIAS, Bangalore; “Methanol Economy: An Option for Sustainable Energy and Environmental Challenges” by Dr. Vijay Kumar Saraswat, Hon. Member (S&T), NITI Ayog, Government of India; “Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Brayton Cycle for Power Generation” by Prof. Pradip Dutta, IISc Bangalore; and “Role of Nuclear Fusion for Environmental Sustainability of Energy in Future” by Prof. J. S. Rao, Altair Engineering. The conference included 27 technical sessions on topics related to energy and environmental sustainability including 5 plenary talks, 40 keynote talks, and 18 invitedtalksfromprominentscientists,inadditionto142contributedtalks,and74 poster presentations by students and researchers. The technical sessions in the conference included Advances in IC Engines: SI Engines, Solar Energy: Storage, Fundamentals of Combustion, Environmental Protection and Sustainability, Environmental Biotechnology, Coal and Biomass Combustion/Gasification, Air Pollution and Control, Biomass to Fuels/Chemicals: Clean Fuels, Advances in IC Engines: CI Engines, Solar Energy: Performance, Biomass to Fuels/Chemicals: Production, Advances in IC Engines: Fuels, Energy Sustainability, Environmental Biotechnology, Atomization and Sprays, Combustion/Gas Turbines/Fluid Flow/Sprays, Biomass to Fuels/Chemicals, Advances in IC Engines: New Concepts, Energy Sustainability, Waste to Wealth, Conventional and Alternate Fuels, Solar Energy, Wastewater Remediation, and Air Pollution. One of the highlights of the conference was the rapid-fire poster sessions in (i) Energy Engineering, (ii) Environment and Sustainability, and (III) Biotechnology, where morethan75studentsparticipatedwithgreatenthusiasmandwonmanyprizesina fiercelycompetitiveenvironment.Morethan200participantsandspeakersattended this four-day conference, which also hosted Dr. Vijay Kumar Saraswat, Hon. Member (S&T), NITI Ayog, Government of India, as the chief guest for the book release ceremony, where 16 ISEES books published by Springer, under a special dedicated series “Energy, Environment, and Sustainability” were released. This is the first time that such significant and high-quality outcome has been achieved by any society in India. The conference concluded with a panel discussion on “Challenges, Opportunities & Directions for Future Transportation Systems,” where the panelists were Prof. Gautam Kalghatgi, Saudi Aramco; Dr. Ravi Prashanth, Caterpillar Inc.; Dr. Shankar Venugopal, Mahindra and Mahindra; Dr. Bharat Bhargagava, DG, ONGC Energy Center; and Dr. Umamaheshwar, GE Transportation, Bangalore. The panel discussion was moderated by Prof. Ashok Pandey, Chairman, ISEES. This conference laid out the road map for technology development, opportunities, and challenges in energy, environment, and sustain- ability domains. All these topicsare veryrelevantfor thecountryand the world in the present context. We acknowledge the support received from various funding agencies and organizations for the successful conduct of the second ISEES Preface ix conferenceSEEC-2018,wherethesebooksgerminated.Wewouldthereforeliketo acknowledge SERB, Government of India (special thanks to Dr. Rajeev Sharma, Secretary); ONGC Energy Center (special thanks to Dr. Bharat Bhargava); TAFE (special thanks to Sh. Anadrao Patil); Caterpillar (special thanks to Dr. Ravi Prashanth); Progress Rail, TSI, India (special thanks to Dr. Deepak Sharma); Tesscorn, India (special thanks to Sh. Satyanarayana); GAIL, VOLVO; and our publishing partner Springer (special thanks to Swati Meherishi). The editors would like to express their sincere gratitude to a large number of authors from all over the world for submitting their high-quality work in a timely manner and revising it appropriately at short notice. We would like to express our special thanks to all the reviewers (Dr. Eric Anderson, Dr. Vishal Bhalla, Dr. Anirban Bhattacharya, Dr. Muhammad Burhan, Dr. Prodyut Chakraborty, Dr. Deepak Ganta, Dr. Manas Gartia, Dr. Ankur Gupta, Dr. Khairul Habib,Dr.M.KumJa,Dr.DineshKabra,Dr.VikrantKhullar,Dr.E.AnilKumar, Dr. Atul Lanjewar, Dr. Rudrodip Majumdar, Dr. Balkrishna Mehta, Dr. Amaresh Mishra,Dr.SouravMitra,Dr.DhirajPatil,Dr.SmaratRao,Dr.BidyutBaranSaha, Dr. Sandip Saha, Dr. Marie-Pierre Santoni, Dr. Soumitra Satapathi, Dr. Sanjeev Soni, Dr. Vijay Kumar Soni, Dr. K. R. Justin Thomas, Dr. Ponnulakshmi VK, Dr.VivekVishwakarma),whoreviewedvariouschaptersofthisbookandprovided very valuablesuggestions tothe authors toimprove their manuscript. Thismonographisintendedforresearchersworkinginthefieldofsolarenergy, and we hope that the book would be of great interest to the professionals and post-graduate students involved in the study of solar thermal collectors, solar radiation forecasting, dye-sensitized solar cells, concentrated photovoltaics, energy storage systems, solar fuels, and various solar-based applications (such as desali- nation, cooling, gasification, cooking). The main objective of this monograph isto promoteabetterandmoreaccurateunderstandingofthevariousaspectsofresearch in the field of solar energy. Rupnagar, India Himanshu Tyagi Kanpur, India Avinash Kumar Agarwal Jodhpur, India Prodyut R. Chakraborty Mandi, India Satvasheel Powar