Advanced Organic FIFTH Chemistry EDITION Part A: Structure and Mechanisms Advanced Organic Chemistry PART A: Structure and Mechanisms PART B: Reactions and Synthesis Advanced Organic FIFTH Chemistry EDITION Part A: Structure and Mechanisms FRANCIS A. CAREY and RICHARD J. SUNDBERG University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia Francis A. Carey Richard J. Sundberg Department of Chemistry Department of Chemistry University of Virginia University of Virginia Charlottesville, VA 22904 Charlottesville, VA 22904 Library of Congress Control Number: 2006939782 ISBN-13: 978-0-387-44897-8 (hard cover) e-ISBN-13: 978-0-387-44899-3 ISBN-13: 978-0-387-68346-1 (soft cover) Printed on acid-free paper. ©2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now know or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com Preface This Fifth Edition marks the beginning of the fourth decade that Advanced Organic Chemistry has been available. As with the previous editions, the goal of this text is to allow students to build on the foundation of introductory organic chemistry and attain a level of knowledge and understanding that will permit them to comprehend much of the material that appears in the contemporary chemical literature. There have been major developments in organic chemistry in recent years, and these have had a major influence in shaping this new edition to make it more useful to students, instructors, and other readers. The expanding application of computational chemistry is reflected by amplified discussion of this area, especially density function theory (DFT) calculations in Chapter 1. Examples of computational studies are included in subsequent chapters that deal with specific structures, reactions and properties. Chapter 2 discusses the principles of both configuration and conformation, which were previously treated in two separate chapters. The current emphasis on enantioselectivity, including devel- opment of many enantioselective catalysts, prompted the expansion of the section on stereoselective reactions to include examples of enantioselective reactions. Chapter 3, which covers the application of thermodynamics and kinetics to organic chemistry, has been reorganized to place emphasis on structural effects on stability and reactivity. This chapter lays the groundwork for later chapters by considering stability effects on carbocations, carbanions, radicals, and carbonyl compounds. Chapters 4 to 7 review the basic substitution, addition, and elimination mecha- nisms, as well as the fundamental chemistry of carbonyl compounds, including enols and enolates. A section on of the control of regiochemistry and stereo- chemistry of aldol reactions has been added to introduce the basic concepts of this important area. A more complete treatment, with emphasis on synthetic applications, is given in Chapter 2 of Part B. Chapter 8 deals with aromaticity and Chapter 9 with aromatic substitution, empha- sizing electrophilic aromatic substitution. Chapter 10 deals with concerted pericyclic reactions, with the aromaticity of transition structures as a major theme. This part of the text should help students solidify their appreciation of aromatic stabilization as a fundamental concept in the chemistry of conjugated systems. Chapter 10 also considers v vi the important area of stereoselectivity of concerted pericyclic reactions. Instructors may want to consider dealing with these three chapters directly after Chapter 3, and Preface we believe that is feasible. Chapters 11 and 12 deal, respectively, with free radicals and with photochemistry and, accordingly, with the chemistry of molecules with unpaired electrons. The latter chapter has been substantially updated to reflect the new level of understanding that has come from ultrafast spectroscopy and computational studies. As in the previous editions, a significant amount of specific information is provided in tables and schemes. These data and examples serve to illustrate the issues that have been addressed in the text. Instructors who want to achieve a broad coverage, but without the level of detail found in the tables and schemes, may choose to advise students to focus on the main text. In most cases, the essential points are clear from the information and examples given in the text itself. We have made an effort to reduce the duplication between Parts A and B. In general, the discussion of basic mechanisms in Part B has been reduced by cross- referencing the corresponding discussion in Part A. We have expanded the discussion of specific reactions in Part A, especially in the area of enantioselectivity and enantios- elective catalysts. We have made more extensive use of abbreviations than in the earlier editions. In particular, EWG and ERG are used throughout both Parts A and B to designate electron-withdrawing and electron-releasing substituents, respectively. The intent is that the use of these terms will help students generalize the effect of certain substituents such as C=O, C≡N, NO2, and RSO2 as electron withdrawing and R (alkyl) and RO (alkoxy) as electron releasing. Correct use of this shorthand depends on a solid under- standing of the interplay between polar and resonance effects in overall substituent effects. This matter is discussed in detail in Chapter 3 and many common functional groups are classified. Several areas have been treated as “Topics”. Some of the Topics discuss areas that are still in a formative stage, such as the efforts to developDFTparameters as quantitative reactivity indices. Others, such as the role of carbocations in gasoline production, have practical implications. We have also abstracted information from several published computational studies to present three-dimensional images of reactants, intermediates, transition structures, and products. This material, including exercises, is available at the publishers web site, and students who want to see how the output of computations can be applied may want to study it. The visual images may help toward an appreciation of some of the subtle effects observed in enantioselective and other stereoselective reactions. As in previous editions, each chapter has a number of problems drawn from the literature. A new feature is solutions to these problems, which are also provided at the publisher’s website at springer.com/carey-sundberg Our goal is to present a broad and fairly detailed view of the core area of organic reactivity. We have approached this goal by extensive use of both the primary and review literature and the sources are referenced. Our hope is that the reader who works through these chapters, problems, topics, and computational studies either in an organized course or by self-study will be able to critically evaluate and use the current literature in organic chemistry in the range of fields in which is applied, including the pharmaceutical industry, agricultural chemicals, consumer products, petroleum chemistry, and biotechnology. The companion volume, Part B, deals extensively with organic synthesis and provides many more examples of specific reactions. Acknowledgment and Personal Statement The revision and updating of Advanced Organic Chemistry that appears as the Fifth Edition spanned the period September 2002 through December 2006. Each chapter was reworked and updated and some reorganization was done, as described in the Prefaces to Parts A and B. This period began at the point of conversion of library resources to electronic form. Our university library terminated paper subscriptions to the journals of the American Chemical Society and other journals that are available electronically as of the end of 2002. Shortly thereafter, an excavation mishap at an adjacent construction project led to structural damage and closure of our departmental library. It remained closed through June 2007, but thanks to the efforts of Carol Hunter, Beth Blanton-Kent, Christine Wiedman, Robert Burnett, and Wynne Stuart, I was able to maintain access to a few key print journals including the Journal of the American Chemical Society, Journal of Organic Chemistry, Organic Letters, Tetrahedron, and Tetrahedron Letters. These circumstances largely completed an evolution in the source for specific examples and data. In the earlier editions, these were primarily the result of direct print encounter or search of printed Chemical Abstracts indices. The current edition relies mainly on electronic keyword and structure searches. Neither the former nor the latter method is entirely systematic or comprehensive, so there is a considerable element of circumstance in the inclusion of specific material. There is no intent that specific examples reflect either priority of discovery or relative importance. Rather, they are interesting examples that illustrate the point in question. Several reviewers provided many helpful corrections and suggestions, collated by Kenneth Howell and the editorial staff of Springer. Several colleagues provided valuable contributions. Carl Trindle offered suggestions and material from his course on computational chemistry. Jim Marshall reviewed and provided helpful comments on several sections. Michal Sabat, director of the Molecular Structure Laboratory, provided a number of the graphic images. My co-author, Francis A. Carey, retired in 2000 to devote his full attention to his text, Organic Chemistry, but continued to provide valuable comments and insights during the preparation of this edition. Various users of prior editions have provided error lists, and, hopefully, these corrections have vii viii been made. Shirley Fuller and Cindy Knight provided assistance with many aspects of the preparation of the manuscript. Acknowledgment This Fifth Edition is supplemented by the Digital Resource that is available at and Personal Statement springer.com/carey-sundberg. The Digital Resource summarizes the results of several computational studies and presents three-dimensional images, comments, and exercises based on the results. These were developed with financial support from the Teaching Technology Initiative of the University of Virginia. Technical support was provided by Michal Sabat, William Rourk, Jeffrey Hollier, and David Newman. Several students made major contributions to this effort. Sara Fitzgerald Higgins and Victoria Landry created the prototypes of many of the sites. Scott Geyer developed the dynamic representations using IRC computations. Tanmaya Patel created several sites and developed the measurement tool. I also gratefully acknowledge the cooperation of the original authors of these studies in making their output available. Problem Responses have been provided and I want to acknowledge the assistance of R. Bruce Martin, David Metcalf, and Daniel McCauley in helping work out some of the specific kinetic problems and in providing the attendant graphs. It is my hope that the text, problems, and other material will assist new students to develop a knowledge and appreciation of structure, mechanism, reactions, and synthesis in organic chemistry. It is gratifying to know that some 200,000 students have used earlier editions, hopefully to their benefit. Richard J. Sundberg Charlottesville, Virginia March 2007 Introduction This volume is intended for students who have completed the equivalent of a two-semester introductory course in organic chemistry and wish to expand their under- standing of structure and reaction mechanisms in organic chemistry. The text assumes basic knowledge of physical and inorganic chemistry at the advanced undergraduate level. Chapter 1 begins by reviewing the familiar Lewis approach to structure and bonding. Lewis’s concept of electron pair bonds, as extended by adding the ideas of hybridization and resonance, plus fundamental atomic properties such as electroneg- ativity and polarizability provide a solid foundation for qualitative descriptions of trends in reactivity. In polar reactions, for example, the molecular properties of acidity, basicity, nucleophilicity, and electrophilicity can all be related to information embodied in Lewis structures. The chapter continues with the more quantitative descriptions of molecular structure and properties that are obtained by quantum mechanical calcula- tions. Hückel, semiempirical, and ab initio molecular orbital (MO) calculations, as well as density functional theory (DFT) are described and illustrated with examples. This material is presented at a level sufficient for students to recognize the various methods and their ranges of application. Computational methods can often provide insight into reaction mechanisms by describing the structural features of intermediates and transition structures. Another powerful aspect of computational methods is their ability to represent electron density. Various methods of describing electron density, including graphical representations, are outlined in this chapter and applied throughout the remainder of the text. Chapter 2 explores the two structural levels of stereochemistry— configuration and conformation. Molecular conformation is important in its own right, but can also influence reactivity. The structural relationships between stereoisomers and the origin and consequences of molecular chirality are discussed. After reviewing the classical approach to resolving racemic mixtures, modern methods for chromatographic separation and kinetic resolution are described. The chapter also explores how stereo- chemistry affects reactivity with examples of diastereoselective and enantioselective reactions, especially those involving addition to carbonyl groups. Much of today’s work in organic chemistry focuses on enantioselective reagents and catalysts. The enantio- selectivity of these reagents usually involves rather small and sometimes subtle differ- ences in intermolecular interactions. Several of the best-understood enantioselective ix x reactions, including hydrogenation, epoxidation of allylic alcohols, and dihydroxylation of alkenes are discussed. Chapter 3 provides examples of structure-stability relation- Introduction ships derived from both experimental thermodynamics and computation. Most of the chapter is about the effects of substituents on reaction rates and equilibria, how they are measured, and what they tell us about reaction mechanisms. The electronic character of the common functional groups is explored, as well as substituent effects on the stability of carbocations, carbanions, radicals, and carbonyl addition intermediates. Other topics in this chapter include the Hammett equation and related linear free-energy relation- ships, catalysis, and solvent effects. Understanding how thermodynamic and kinetic factors combine to influence reactivity and developing a sense of structural effects on the energy of reactants, intermediates and transition structures render the outcome of organic reactions more predictable. Chapters 4 to 7 relate the patterns of addition, elimination, and substitution reactions to the general principles developed in Chapters 1 to 3. A relatively small number of reaction types account for a wide range of both simple and complex reactions. The fundamental properties of carbocations, carbanions, and carbonyl compounds determine the outcome of these reactions. Considerable information about reactivity trends and stereoselectivity is presented, some of it in tables and schemes. Although this material may seem overwhelming if viewed as individual pieces of infor- mation, taken in the context of the general principles it fills in details and provides a basis for recognizing the relative magnitude of various structural changes on reactivity. The student should strive to develop a sufficiently broad perspective to generate an intuitive sense of the effect of particular changes in structure. Chapter 4 begins the discussion of specific reaction types with an examination of nucleophilic substitution. Key structural, kinetic, and stereochemical features of substi- tution reactions are described and related to reaction mechanisms. The limiting mecha- nisms SN1 and SN2 are presented, as are the “merged” and “borderline” variants. The relationship between stereochemistry and mechanism is explored and specific examples are given. Inversion is a virtually universal characteristic of the SN2 mechanism, whereas stereochemistry becomes much more dependent on the specific circumstances for borderline and SN1 mechanisms. The properties of carbocations, their role in nucleophilic substitution, carbocation rearrangements, and the existence and relative stability of bridged (nonclassical) carbocations are considered. The importance of carbocations in many substitution reactions requires knowledge of their structure and reactivity and the effect of substituents on stability. A fundamental characteristic of carbocations is the tendency to rearrange to more stable structures. We consider the mechanism of carbocation rearrangements, including the role of bridged ions. The case of nonclassical carbocations, in which the bridged structure is the most stable form, is also discussed. Chapter 5 considers the relationship between mechanism and regio- and stereo- selectivity. The reactivity patterns of electrophiles such as protic acids, halogens, sulfur and selenium electrophiles, mercuric ion, and borane and its derivatives are explored and compared. These reactions differ in the extent to which they proceed through discrete carbocations or bridged intermediates and this distinction can explain variations in regio- and stereochemistry. This chapter also describes the E1, E2, and E1cb mechanisms for elimination and the idea that these represent specific cases within a continuum of mechanisms. The concept of the variable mechanism can explain trends in reactivity and regiochemistry in elimination reactions. Chapter 6 focuses on the fundamental properties and reactivity of carbon nucleophiles, including